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THE 



United Stmtes 



ITS 

j^istory, pi^ysical aqd Political G<-*<>iirapl\v, 

^latcrial Pcsoarces aqd Irjdlistrial 

l")cVcIoi)iijerjt. 



ACCOMPANIED BY 



Statistical Tables, Maps, Etc. 




t ^ 



" BV 

Sktu^uel F=HULOiniS. 7VT. K.. D. D., 

LATE PROFESSOR OF I'lIVSrcS IN LAWKKNCK 
UNIVERSITY. 



CHICAGO: 

R. S. PEALE & CO. 



1«90. 



COPYRIGHT 

% 



• 1890. .•.•.•■•■•■•• 






U N 1 T i: 1 ) S T A T E S . 

PAI;T I -HISTORY AM) COLONIZATION. 



I. DISCOVEUY AND SKTTl.KMENT V)K AMEUICA. 

i:nrly voy- 1. fT\IIE ilnte on ■which Aincricti wns first discovered 
Ifscoverics -L l>y Europeaus is a mi.llur of uncerlainty. The 
le.L'ciids R'SiK'Cliiif;; lliu early voyages liillier 
are numerous, but llie most aneieiit of them arc doubt- 
less tictions. No aeeouiil of the <li coveries, previous 
to the lime of Coliimluis, can be relied upon, e.xoeptinj; 
tlio.;e nmde by the Icelanders, who. about the year 
1000, attemptcil to colonize the country, but willioul 
L any pernmneni success. It was not until the coming 

I of "Columl)Us. in 14!fJ. that any bemfit was derived by 

' the old world from the discovery of the great continent 

of America. 

The success of Columbus aroused the spirit of enter- 
prise, and other voyages were made, notably those of 
the Cabots in 1497 98. Ponce de Leon in 1512, and Ver- 
razzano in 1.523. under the allspices of the English, 
Spanish and French governments, respec'ively. The 
Spaniards gave the name of "Florida" to North Amer- 
ica, while the French called it "Canadaor New France," 
and these two nations iu some way conceived the idea 
that the whole country belonged to them. 
Bffprt-^ 2. But the English had notforgotten that the Cabots, 

''1? with English ships, had first reached thu mainland of 
North America, and from this fact they laid claim to 
the northern part of that continent. Many unsuccess- 
ful attempts were made by Englishmen to found colo- 
nies. The fir>t of these was Sir Humphrey (iilbert who 
mide two efforts, one in 1.578. and the other in 158;i, 
without success, and lost his life in a storm while re- 
turning home. Sir Waller Raleigh, Gilbert's half- 
broiher, obtained a patent from Queen Elizabeth, and 
in 1.584 sent out two sliips, commanded by Amidas and 
Barlow, to fix upon a place for a settlement. They ex- 
plor d the coast of what is now North Carolina. Struck 
with the beauty and fertility of the co\intry, they gave 
a most nattering account of it on their return home, 
and Raleigh named it Virginia, in honor of the ''virgin 
queen " Elizabeth. In the spring of 1.5S5 he sent out a 
colony which settled on Roanoke Island, but it was 
starvcil out in the same year. Again, in 1587, Raleigh 
sent out another colony under White to the same place, 
but it entirely disappeared, and no trace of it could be 
found when While came back three years later. In 
1002. Gosnola, with twenty colonists, took a short and 
direct route, and came upon the coast of Massachu-setts. 
He %vinl(rcd upon an island in the vicinity and then 
went back, taking the colonists, who refused to stay 
any longer, with him 

3. In 1C06. .James I granted a charter to two com- 
panies formed in England. This charter gave them 
the whole continent of North America, from the thirty- 
fourth to the forty-fifth parallel of latitude. The one 
called the Plymouth Company was to take the northern 
half, and the other, the London company, the southern 
half, and their nearest settlements must be a hundred 
miles apart. Moreover, each colony was to be governed 
by a resident council appointed by the king, with power 
to chooseoneof their own number for president. 

4. The earliest attempts at colonization under the 
: ^'"""'new English patent were made by the I'lymouth com- 
pany, but the expeditions which tlu y sent out in KiOti, 
1C"7 and 1608, were unsuccessful, and it was left for 
the London company to found the first permanent Eng- 
lish settlement in the new world. In KiOti this com 
pany sent out about a hundred men, mostly aclvcntur- 
ers. in a fleet of three vessels comman<ied by Christopher 
Newport. Being driven by a storm into Chesapeake 
Bay, he found there a fine river which he named the 



James liver, after the ting, and choo>ing a low penin- 
sula, he there plii"led the colony of Jamestown on May 
13. I(ili7. But very soon the colonists became dissatis- 
fied. Dissensions arose and Wingfleld, president of 
the council, was deposed. They sutlered from starva- 
tion, and had it n<it been for the indefatigable exertions 
of Captain John Smiili, the settlement would have en- 
tirely broken up. The colonists experienced many 
vitMssitudes, but after a few years they became pros- 
perous and the permanent settlement of Virginia was 
established. In the meantime, the policy of the L(mdon 
cora|)any toward the settlers became more liberal, and 
a representative government was granted them in 1(J19, 
which was the beginning in America of government by 
the people. In the same year a Dutch vessel brought 
in some negroes who were purchased by the planters, 
and thus slavery was first introduced into the English 
colonies. 

5. The first settlers of Massachusetts were a band of 
Purit.ms, or Separatists, as they were called, because 
they had so(iarateil from the Church of England. Being 
driven from England, they sought refuge in Llolland; 
but wishing to iiud a home in the new world for them- 
selves and their children, they returned to England 
again, and from thence a baud of 103 set sail in the 
MayHower, and landed at Plymouth, in America, De- 
cember 21, lt)20. The lil tic colony survived the rigors 
of a northern winter, the burden of poverty, and the 
lack of food, and became permanently established. 

G. In l(i28 John Endicott, with a companj". made a 
settlement at Salem; other towns, also, sprang up 
around it, and these were all united under a charter 
obtained from Charles I, with the name of the Massa- 
chuselts Hay colony. These two colonies, Plymouth 
and Massachusetts Bay. were for many years independ- 
ent of one another; but were al last united in 1G93, 
under the n.inie of Massachusetts. 

7. In Hi24, the London ccmipany surrendered its 
charter to the king, who made a disposition of the ter- 
riiory which they had controlled, as he thought fit. A 
part of it was granted to Lord Baltimore in 1633. and 
received the name of Maryland. All the country be- 
tween the English settlements of Virginia and the 
Spanish ]iosts in Florida was called Carolina. This ter- 
ritory comprised the present states of North Carolina, 
South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and part of Florida. 
In 172!) North and South Carolina were organized, and 
in 1733 Georgia was colonized by James Oglethorpe, 
and Savannah founded. Thus, out of the territory, 
originally granteil to the London company, five colo- 
nies had been formed. 

8. To the territory granted to the Plymouth com- 
pany, the nanu' New Ivngland had been given by Cap- 
tain JdIui Smith in 11)14. The founding of the Ply- 
mouth and Massachusetts Bay colonics has already 
been mention<'d. The greater number of the people 
who came from Englandin the great Puritan migra- 
tion, sellle<l in the latter colony. At the same time 
many found it expedient to seek other parts of New 
England. Now only did new-comers thus try new 
places, but the older settlements began to send out com- 
panies. In 1023 New Hampshire was first colonized 
under a grant to Captain John Mason and Sir Ferdi- 
nand Gorges. Connecticut and Rhode Island also be- 
caim colonies, and were afterward chartered by the 
crown in 1002 and 1003. Thus, out of that part of the 
country originally granted to the Plymouth company, 
were formed the colonies of Massachusetts, Connecti- 
cut, New Hampshire and Rhode Island. Maine was con- 
sidered a part of Massachusetts and was not counted as 



Plymoutli 

coluuy. 



Mii«hnrtia- 
-ills H;iy 
colony. 



Maryland. 

rarol'ina. 

Georgia. 



Ttic ollur 

Eitirlniul 
colouics 



Xew 
Uunipsbiri'. 

Conin'cti- 
cut and 
Khodc 
Ixland. 



UNITED STATES 



a separate colony among those that finally combined to 
form the original thirteen states. The territory now 
occupied by Vermont was claimed in part by New 
Yorls, in part by New Hampshire, and she did not be- 
come a separate state until after the revolutionary war. 
9. As has been said, the charter granted to the Lon- 
don and Plymouth companies provided that theirnear- 
est settlements should be one hundred miles apart, 
thus leaving a strip of territory between the two main 
grants which was really neutral ground, and was never 
appropriated by either company. The Spaniards bad 
confined their explorations to the south and made set- 
tlements there, but they claimed the whole continent 
north of them. The French had established themselves 
in the north, and held Canada and part of the northern 
states; they claimed everything south of them and 
called the whole New France. The English settle- 
ments were midway between the French and Spanish, 
and the English claimed everything from New England 
and Carolina westward to the Pacific, naming it all 
Virginia. Thus, so far, North America was divided 
between the three European powers, England, France 
and Spain. 
The rise of JO. A fourth power now appeared. In 1609, the 
Dnw?r""^'' Dutch East India company sent out Henry Hudson, an 
■ Englishman in their employ, in the ship named the 
"Half Moon" to make discoveries in America. He 
reached the continent and explored the coast as far 
south as Virginia, then turning to the north he entered 
the mouth of the river which bears his name, and sailed 
up the stream as far as the present city of Albany. 
Having completed his discovery he returned home. 
Upon the strength of Hudson's explorations, Holland 
laid claim to all the land along the great river, and 
called the whole territory New Netherlands. In 1631, 
the Dutch West India company was formed, and im- 
mediately received large grants of land on both sides 
of the Hudson extending from the Connecticut river on 
the north to the Delaware river on the south. Previous 
to this, however, a Dutch settlement had been founded 
in 1614, on Manhattan Island, the present site of New 
York City, which was afterwards called New Amster- 
dam. 

The Dutch now began to establish settlements and 
trading posts in their possessions, which included that 
neutral territory lying between the original grants to 
the London and Plymouth companies. In 1638, Dela- 
The ^are was colonized by the Swedes, who founded a set- 

co'ion'v tlement on Delaware Bay, which was called New Swe- 
den. But disputes about a territory arose between the 
Swedish and Dutch colonists, which led to a war be- 
tween them, ending in the final surrender of New Swe- 
den to the New Netherlands in 1655. 
End or the n gut New Netherlands was soon destined to change 
p "wer hands. The introduction of a foreign element between 
the northern and southern portions of the English colo- 
nies had always been recognized as a source of trouble 
and danger, and in fact the Dutch settlers, occupying 
territory claimed by the English on both sides of them, 
were continually involved in disputes with their neigh- 
bors, especially with those of Connecticut. War hav- 
ing arisen between England & Holland, the English 
king, Charles II, determined to seize the Dutch posses- 
sions in North America; so in 1664 he granted the whole 
of their territory to his brother, the Duke of York. In 
the same year the duke sent out three vessels under the 
command of Colonel Nichols.who, upon arriving in the 
harbor of New Amsterdam, demanded a surrender of 
the territory to his English majesty. Governor Stuyve- 
sant, being unprepared for defense, complied with the 
demand, and the whole country passed into the hands 
of the English. In honor of the duke, the name New 
New York. Amsterdam was changed to New York, and the whole 
territory received the same name. 

13. After the Duke of York had gained possession of 
the Dutch territory, he in turn sold the southern part of 



it to two English noblemen. Lord Berkely and Sir 
George Carteret. This tract, in compliment to Sir 
George, who had been governor of the island of Jersey, 
was called New Jersey. A liberal constitution was New 
formed by the proprietors, and Philip Carteret ap- "'"^'^y- 
pointed governor. The Dutch had several small trad- 
ing stations in this territory at an earlier date, and the 
Quakers, having bought the rights of Lord Berkely, 
came soon afterwards. In 1676 a division was made, 
the Quakers taking West Jersey and Carteret retaining 
East Jersey, which became Puritan. In 1702 the colony 
was given up by the proprietors to Queen Anne in order 
that a royal governor might be appointed, and the two 
provinces were then made into one. 

13. The territory comprised within the limits of the Pemisyl- 
state of Pennsylvania was granted in 1681, by Charles ^■'""*- 
II to William Penn. sou of Admiral Penn, in payment 

of an old debt due from the crown to the Penn family. 
In 1083, the present state of Delaware, then known as Delaware, 
the "Territories," was added to his domain, and re- 
garded as a part of Pennsylvania, but in 1703 it became 
a separate colony. Thus, the formation of the original The 
thirteen colonies has been described. The Loudon °^'||°e„ 
Company's territory furnished five, viz: Virginia, colonies. 
Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. 
The Plymouth Company's grant, comprising New Eng- 
land, gave four, viz: Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode 
Island and New Hampshire. The neutral territory in- 
cluded between the original grants to the two companies 
furnished four, viz: New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
vania and Delaware. 

14. It is in vain to look for well balanced constitutions /^Jq™ „" " 
in the earlier periods of colonial history. England jt,(. coiouiea 
herself can scarcely boastof having a fixed constitution 
previous to the revolution in the year 1688, a period sub- 
sequent to the settlement of the colonies. The legal 

and constitutional history of the colonies, therefore, af- 
fords but little instruction. As has been shown, in less 
than eighty years from the first permanent English set- 
tlement in North America, the two original patents 
granted to the Plymouth and London companies were di- 
vided and subdivided into twelve distinct and uncon- 
nected provinces; and in fifty years more a thirteenth, 
Georgia, was added to the southern extreme of the 
previous establishments. To each of these, after vari- 
ous changes, there was ultimately granted a form of 
government resembling in its most essential parts, as 
far as local circumstances would permit, that which was 
established in the parent state. Without entering into 
details, it may be observed, in general, that agreeably 
to the spirit of the British constitution, ample provision 
was made for the liberty of the colonists. The colonial 
forms of government were, in the main, unhampered 
by the royal prerogatives. In some of the provinces 
the inhabitants chose their own governors and all other 
public officers, and their legislators were under little or 
no outside control. In others, the crown delegated most 
of its powers to particular persons, who were also in- 
vested with the property of the soil. To those colonies 
which were most immediately dependent upon the king 
were granted the same rights and privileges as their 
fellow subjects in the mother countiy. , ^ ,,„. „, 

15. During the period of colonization, three forms of ^ormsof 
government were observable— proprietary, cnarter and |^g^,_ 
royal. The proprietors of land grants offered liberal 
governmental privileges to those who were willing to 
lettle on their lands, and thus several of t,he colonies 
became proprietary. These were Maryland, Carolina, 
Georgia New York, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania 
(also including Delaware) and New Jersey. Some of 
the proprietors becoming tired of their grants, surren- 
dered them to the crown, and the colonies, established 
in such territory, became royal provinces, over which 
the king appointed governors with the power of abso- 
lute veto on legislation. The colonies thus coming un- 
der the royal authority were, North Carolina, South 



UNITED S T A T ]■: S 



Colonies 
Dudt-r a 
cfaurl<T 
govern- 
ment. 



Ktiulish 
policy 
lowurd the 
colouiHts.i 



Growih 
and pros- 
per: y of 
Ih" colo- 
dU'S. 



Caases of 
iiirrciisu 
in popula- 
tion. 



Social life 
and ons- 
lonis oi 
New 
England. 



Carolina, Georsia, New York, Now Ilumpshire and 
Ni-w .KTsey. \ irginia became a roval provi<ice about 
lout. Ihrec colonies, only, remained proprietary 
down to the Revolution; these were Pennsylvania Del- 
aware (now a separate colony) and New jersey. ' The 
colonies ortrnnizcd under a charter !;overnmeut were 
Mas-inehusells, Coiineclicut am'. Hhode Island. These 
charters were granteil by royal authority, and irave the 
colonists the right of choosin- their own ollicers and 
makimr and enforcinir their own laws as they thouicht 
best L pon the accession of James II to the throne 'he 
held that all the colonial lands in New England be- 
Ioni,'( a to I he crown. Accordingly he sent over Sit Ed- 
mund Andros. who was to revok-! all the charters and 
assume the governorship of the province of New Eng- 
land iiml New York. The charier of Jlassacliuselts was 
annulled in 1(!S4. but Connecticut and l{hode Island re- 
tained Iheirs in spile of the royal aiilhorily In 1G92 a 
new chart, r was granted to Massachusetts; but under'its 
conditions s'e partly became a royal province 

Ifi Forllie first cenlury and a half after the settle- 
ment of I ho colonies. England, in the main, exercised 
aw-^eaud .iberal policy toward them. .She allowed 
them 10 govern themselves by such laws as their local 
!efe'isU'ures ll.ought necessary, and left their trudeopen 
to every individual in her dominions. She also gave 
thetu lull permission topursue theirrespecliveintcrests 
III such a manner as they thought proper, and reserved 
little for herself but the benefit of their trade, and that 
or a political union under the same bead. This indul- 
gence had a very marked effect upon the growth and 
prosperity of the col-.nies. They increased in wealth 
numbers and resources with a rapidity never before 
equalled in ancient or modern history. They extended 
their settlements l.,500 miles along 'the sea^oast. and 
300 miles to the westward. In the short space of 150 
years their numbers increased to three millions, and 

third of that of Great Britain, although much restricted 
Dyliie navigation laws imposed upon them by the 
mo. uT country. The rapid increase in the population 
of the colonies was principally owing to internal causes. 
Th .ugh somewhat accelerated by the inUux of stran- 
gers previous to 1630. yet. after that time, immigration 

Tin«rH".'-'*'T"/'''''y?J'> P^'-l^""." '^^ country 
.Tnd.r tnn ^''" "{,'^"'''" "'' ''f*^' ^^^'^^^ cainc to be better 
understood, and the constant struggles between the peo- 
ple and the home government respecting riirhls and 
privileges served as a check to the advent of new 
coiners. Hence the population of the olonies aro-o 
mainly from natural increase. In consequence of the 
equality 01 fori une and simplicity of manners which 
pr.-% ailed among them, their inhabitants multiplied far 
beyond the proportion of old nations, corrupted and 
weakeiied by the vices of wealth, above all, of vanity 
than which, perhaps, there is no greater enemy to the 
increase ot the human species. ^ 

17. In the settlement of a new country, many hard- 
ships and privations must of necessity be endurid and 
the Americari colonists experienced theirshuie of them 
more especially those of New England. In that section 
the climate was more rigorous than in the other parts 

fie, u T. 'T' f"'' ^.'"^ "^u'^i^"'!"" of the soil moredif- 
ncult. The habitations outside of the remilar settle- 
ments were often far apart, .so that intercommunication 

the ruder sort, being com,,osed of logs, and so imper- 
fect y constructed that they afforded a poor protection 
against the cold of a New England winter VVh le he 
col,,ni.st3 were poor there was necessarily great plainness 
of living among them. Luxuries wert unknown to 
them, but Uiere was an abundance of the coar " ki" 1 
of food. Pork and beans, boiled corn meal and Jlk 
or pork and ,.eas, formed the staple articles of , c ' 
«eMomnf^r'™T°'y T'^t''^ ■Tyeandln.lian," and \ 
seldomof flour. Tea andcoffeewerenot yet introduced 



but home-made beer and cider were larnely uted Be 
ing principally of Puritan stock, there were bu't few 
secular amusements among them. Dancing, and the 
theater or anything approaching it, were forbidden 
musical instruments w<Te rare, and no one was allowed 
to own a set of dice or a pack of cards. In their de- 
sire to promote virtue, the Puritans, no doubt, were too 
au.stere in their mode of living, yet tbe standard of 
morality among them was certainly very high In the Ofho 
southern colonies life was morcea.sy, as a general IhiuL' "'!'"■ 
Ala.-e proportion of the settlers' therc^ were men ,^f ™"'""=''- 
go<Hl family, allracled to the new world by a desire to 
luake money and to enjoy personal freedom. Many of 
them secured patents for plantations of their own in- 
s.e.-K of attempting to improve the lands in common 
and brought out laborers to work them at their privale 
e.xpensn The sod was very productive, and thegrowtli 
of tobacco, rice and indigo formed a great source of 
weal h, so that luxury abounded in that part of the 
country to a much greater extent than in any other 
The exi.stenceol slavery among them caused a great 
deal of Ignorance and ulleness, as tbe wisest of them 
admitted; butthere grew up an aristocratic class,am,.ng 
whom there were many men of high character and en 
trgy I he settlers in the region which now forms the 
middle s at,s principally followed the occupation o? 
farming, the soil and climate being well adapted for the 
growth oi cereals. 

18. The religion of the colonists was chiefly Protest- Tbe 
? Vu . p^yority of them, especially in the north were ■■^•'^''"■'s 
ot that class of men who, in England, were called ^lig:"'"^"'"''- 
senters. In New England they were largely CoiV: n 'i 
t.onal. All the other leading'^denominati.fns als^I ifa 
their representatives in different parts of the country 
In the royal colonies there was a stronir tend.'ncv 
towards the Church of England, which bec.me the pr<^ 
vailing rehgion among them. In Virginia it was es ab- 
lished by law. In fact .nearly every colony at the out- 
set attempted to establish some form of reli-ious b. lief 
on a governmental fou,„lation, and on account of i his 
as IS well known, per.secuiions at the first arose. But 
the spirit of religious freedom predominated and in ?'""P'""» 
general, men were left at liberty to worship God ac-' 
''"'Zl'^}" l^'' ^'.".■""'•« "f "'^-i^ own consciences 

IJ. Ihe English c.lonists were, from their first set- '^r^''■,'P"'■' 
cment in America, devoted to liberty, according to """'"'^• 
English Kleas and English principles.' After a Ions 

i, '."fn'th, r'r"/"" "',"•''■ "'"^ '''^ parliamen, culminat^ 

i> g in the English revolution, the followingfundament- 

a principles were settled; -That it was the undoulfted K'^^*^ "' 

right of English subjects, being freemen or freebohlers ^'1'^"'^,'' 

to ffive then- nrn,-„.rlTr ,^„1„ 1,..?,...: ^lu^'iutlB, BubjcClS. 



. ' • ., .- J-"-" • ""-'"s "Kcnieu or ireeuou ers 

o give their property only by their own con,sent. That 

the House of Commons exerci.-edthesolerisrhtofgrant- 
ng the money of the people of England, becausf hat 
house alone represented them. That taxes were the 
free git.s of the people to their rulers. That ?hc au 
thori-y of sovereigns was to be exeroi.sed only for he 
good of their subjects. That it was the riglit of he 
people to meet together, and peaceaMy toco^sider their 
grievances to petition for a redress <,f them, and finally 
when intoliTable grievances were unredressed to seek 
rehe . on the failure of petitions and remonslrances by 
forcible means. ■ L pon these fundamental principles 
thus established, the colonists took their stand an I all 
encroachments on their rights were met with a more 
determmed ..pint of opposition than would have been 
possible, ha,l hey emigrated from the moth.-r country 
in the prece. ing century, when tbe doctrines of the 
divine right of kings an<l passive obedience to the°r wm 
were generally accepted. 

20. There were many causes favorable to liberlv <^''"'"« 
among the cc.lonists. Their removal to so great a dis- f'";;,'""!" 
anceirom the parent government greatly weakened '""• 
their attachment to their sovereign, ami with each sue 
wedmg generation that alT.-ciion became still less 
marked, and at lergth was almost entirely lost Their 



UNITED STATES 



religion also fostered a love of liberty. Theywere chiefly 
Protestants, and all Protestantism is founded on astrong 
claim to natural lilierty and tbc rij^ht of private judg- 
ment. The state of society in the colonies was favora- 
ble to a spirit of liberty and independence. Theirinha- 
bitants, unaccustomed to the distinctions of rank which 
characterized European nations, were imbued with the 
idea that all men are by nature equal. All their im- 
pressions were calculated to inspire them with a belief 
that democratic forms of government were by for the 
best. With rank and titles they had nothing in com- 
mon; kings, nobles and bishops were unknown to them. 
They could not easily be persuaded that their grants of 
land or their civil rights were the gifts of princes. 
Many of them had never heard of Magna Charta, and 
tho«e who knew the circumstances of the remarkable 
period of English history when that great charter was 
obtained, did not rest their claims to liberty and prop- 
erty on the transactions of that important day. They 
looked to the Parent of the universe as the source of all 
their rights. Their political creed was short but sound. 
They believed that God made all mankind originally 
equal; that he endowed them with the rights of life, 
property and as much liberty as was consistent with 
the riglits of others. That all government was a poli- 
tical institution between men naturally equal, not for 
the aggrandizement of one or a few, but for the general 
happiness of the whole community. Impressed with 
seaiimcnts of this nature, they grew up, from the earli- 
est infancy, with that confidence which is well cal- 
culated to inspire a love for freedom and a preposses- 
sion in favor of independence. 

11. — THE CONTEST BETWEEN ENGLAND AND PRANCE. 

France in 31. While the English were establishing their colo- 
Amunca. jjjgg along the Atlantic coast, and .gradually working 
their way into the interior, the French were penetrat- 
ing the continent by the way of the St. Lawrence, tak- 
ing advantage of the discoveries made by Cartier, 
Champlain and others. The two great pioneers of 
French occupation were the fur trader and the mission- 
ary. It was about the time of the settlement of Mass- 
achusetts Bay that the Jesuit Fathers, who bad already 
been laboring for many years among the Algonquins 
and Hiiri>ns of Canada and New York, began to push 
their explnrations westward with renewed zeal and en- 
terprise, accompanying, and often leading the Canadian 
fur traders on their long journeys. Among the soldiers, 
also, who came to New France, as the Freuch posses- 
sions in America were called, were men who were in- 
tent upon enlarging their king's domains. Several of 
the Jesuits were niart3-red. AUouez made known the 
copper mines of Lake Superior. Dablou and Marquette 
founded Sault Ste. Marie, the first white settlement in 
the northwestern states. Marquette, accompanied by 
the trader JoHet. first reached the upper waters of the 
Mississippi in 1673. 
Robert de 23. One of the greatest of French explorers was 
)» Salle. Robert de la Salle, who came out to Canada to seek his 
fortune. A tract of land was granted him a few miles 
beyond Montreal, but he was bent upon new discoveries. 
He secured the aid of some rich men and of Count 
Frontenac, governor of Canada, and having built some 
vessels, he explored the upper lakes, made his way to 
the Illinois river, and erected a fort on the present site 
o^ Peoria. At last he made the great journey which he 
had for some time been planning. He set out from 
Fort ISiami. on Lake Michigan, with a party of French- 
men and Indians. He dragged his canoes from stream 
to stream until, after innumerable hardships and dan- 
gers, from which he never flinched, he launched them 
upon the waters of the Mississippi and floated down its 
current. He explored the great river to its mouth, and 
in 1682, took possession of the vast territory drained by 
it and its tributaries in the name of Louis XIV. king 
of France, and named it Louisiana after him. He then 



retraced his course and hastened back to France. The 
king titled out an expedition for La Salle that he might 
establish a colony at tbe mouth of the Mississippi. The 
naval commander, Beaujeu, landed La Salle and his 
company at Matagorda bay, in Texas, which La Salle 
supposed at first was the mouth of the Mississippi. 
Then Beaujeu sailed back and left the colonists to their 
fate. They built a fort, and La Salle set out to find the 
Mississippi, but utterly failed. Dividing his men, he 
left one party in possession of the fort, and with the 
other endeavored to force his way to Canada, there to 
obtain relief. He never reached the end of his journey. 
After suffering terrible hardships, he was treacherously 
murdered (1687) by some of his own party when on his 
way. France sent out another expedition under D' Iber- 
ville, who (1702) founded Mobile. In 1718 the city of 
New Orleans was founded by the French Mississippi 
Company. 

23. The French planted military posts at intervals French 
along the great river, and settlements rose up about "'gj^'"'^ 
them. The French colonies and outposts also extended 

from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, up the valley 
of the St. Lawrence, and through the region of the 
great lakes. Thus the English settlements became en- 
closed by a cordon of military posts, and at that time it 
seemed as though the whole continent were d<\stined to 
become French rather than English. The French also 
had an advantage from the fact that they had secured 
the good will of most of the Indian tribes through their 
own prudent policy and the influence of their mission- 
aries. The English settlers looked upon their French 
neighbors with jealousy and alarm, for they interfered 
with the extension of their settlements, especially in 
the north. In the southern colonies the inconvenience 
of the French occupancy was comparatively but little 
felt. Their social characteristics and the nature of their 
industry were not favorable to western migration, so, as 
there was nothing to tempt them away from their plan- 
tations into the wild interior they kept close to the sea- 
coast. But in the north it was different. There the 
constant increase of commerce was followed by the in- 
creased wealth of tbe towns, and consequently the 
lands about them became more valuable. The great 
bulk of the emigrants who came over landed at the 
northern ports since trade was more active in the north- 
ern colonies. Many of these, being unable to purchase 
homes near the great centers of trade and the many 
flourishing settlements, or being impelled by a spirit of 
enterprise, went in search of new lands farther from 
the coast. Thus the northward and westward growth 
of New England and the English conquest of New 
Netherlands brought the two great rivals face to face. 

24. The great struggle between France and England King 
began in 1690. King James II had been detlironed ^^^Jl'*™'' 
(1688), and William of Orange placed upon the Entilish 
throne. The Frenrh king, Louis XIV, espoused ihe 

cau.se of James, and a war followed, known as King 
William's War, in which the colonies became involved. 
Both the French and English colonists made use of In- 
dian allies, and the warfare was marked by the most 
barbarous excesses. The Indians of Maine anil New 
Hampshire were incited by French traders to attack the 
English towns. In 1689 Dover was burned. Cascowas 
attacked, but the timely arrival of reinforcements from 
Msssachusetts saved it. All the settlements further east 
were broken up. In 1690 the war became more earnest. 
Three war parties of French and Indians were sent out 
by Count Frontenac from Montreal. Three Rivers and 
Quebec. The first surrounded the settlement of Schen- 
ectady in the night, and put it to the sword. The sec- 
ond destroyed Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, and then 
in conjunction with the third party, captured Casco. 

The English colonies became aroused and determined 
to punish the invaders. An expedition fitted out under 
the united elforts of Massachusetts, Plymouth. Connec- 
ticut and New York was sent out under Fitz John 



UNITED STATES 



Winthrop, against Montreal. An attack riuule on the 
town was repulsed by Frontenac. In the meantime Sir 
William Phipps, with a lleet, sent out from Massachu- 
setts, plundered Port Royal and other French settle- 
ments. Then, sailing up the St. Ijuwrence, he at- 
tempted to surprise Quebec. But Frontenac, having 
defeated the attack on Montreal, reached Quebec before 
him. and the enterprise failed. The war continued un- 
til lt)9T, when a treaty of peace was made between 
France and England. Both parties had suffered severe- 
ly, anil neither had gained any real advantage. 
Amie" ~^- '^'^'^ truce between the two great rivals lasted 

war. about live ycrs, when war again broke nut l)etween 

them (1703). At once the French and English in Amer- 
ica fell to lighting, and the war that followed is called 
Queen Anne's War. During the five years of peace 
the French had continued to make settlements in the 
west. They never lost sight of the great idea which in- 
flamed their ambition, which was to estalflish a great 
French-American empire. They had founded Detroit, 
Mobile and numerous villages on the Mississippi. In 
the east they had recovered all the places taken from 
them by tlie English in the last war, inaugurated new 
missions, and increased their influence over the Indians. 
At this time Spain was in alliance with France, anil the 
English settlers found themselves opposed not only by 
the French in the north and west, but by the Spanianl.s 
of Florida in the south. The English colonistsdirected 
their tirst operations against the Spaniards. St. Augus- 
tine was captured (ITO:*). but had to be abandoned. 
Three years later the Christian Inilian setllements of 
middle Florida were destroyed by the English, and the 
The war at missions entirely broken up. 

the north. 2G. Xew England suffered greatly in this war. There 
was an atrocious massacre at Deerfneld in 1704. Haver- 
hill, which had not fully recovered from the massacre 
of 16t)7, W!»s plundered and burned a second time, and 
many of the colonists killed (1708), and the whole of 
thai part of the country was harassed by barbarous 
foes. Receiving but little help from England, the 
colonists for several years were unable to undertake 
any important expeditions. An attack on Charleston, 
S. C. (1700), by the French and Spaniards, was repulsed. 
Port Royal was again taken from the French (1710), 
and with it the most of Acadia, which now became 
known as Nova Scotia. 
E^P*^'*'""* In 1711 an English fleet arrived in Boston to co- 
Ca'nada. operate with the colonists in an attempt to confjuer 
Canada, but all operations in that quarter proved a 
failure. In 1713 a treaty of peace was signed at 
Utrecht, by which the English acquired Newfound- 
land and Acadia. The eastern Indians were also in- 
duced to make peace about this time. 

27. Many years of peace now followed, during 
which the colonies increased rapidly in population 
and advanced in material prosperity. Tlie French 
still pursued their scheme of building up a great 
empire in the west. They controlled the valuable 
fur trade of the whole Mississippi valley. After 
their expulsion from Acadia they had crossed to the 
island of Cape Breton, and erected the strong fortress 
of Louisburg. At Niagara they had a fort command- 
ing the communication between Lakes Erie and Ontario. 
Natchez was founded in 1710. In 1710 New Orleans 
was built, and soon became the capital of Louisiana. 
The French missionaries also continued their conquests 
in the wilderness of the Mississippi. After several 
years of peace. France again ch^clared war against 
England (1744), and immediately Ijegan hostilities 
against the settlements. The campaign which fol- 

Cwrec's ^°"'^''' '** known as King George's war, because it oc- 
w'ar. curred in the reign of George II. 

28. The colonists determined to carry on the war by 
their own means without waiting the uncertain aid 
from England. An expedition was planned against 
Louisburg which was successful, and that strong fort- 



ress fell into the hands of the Americans (1743). This 
achievement of untrained soldiers was received with 
enthusiasm by the colonies, and with aston'^hment in 
Europe. The treaty of Ai.\--la-Chappelle (1748) put an 
en<i to the war: and greatly to the disgust of New 
Enirland, Louisburg was restored to the French in 
exchange for Madras, in Uindustan, which France 
had taken from England. 

39. The colonists had but a short time to reap the 
benefits of peace, after the treaty already referred to, 
when the sound of approaching war filled the land 
with an.xiety and gloom. After an interval of about 
eight years. Great Britain formally declared war against Declaration 
France. The causes leading to this war, which was "' ""''■ 
called the French and Indian war, were the alleged 
encroachments of the French on the frontiers of the 
colonies in America belongini; to England. The French 
determined to connect their northern and southern pos- 
sessions by a line of posts e.xteniliug along the frontiers 
of the English possessions, from Lake Ontario to the 
Ohio, and down the Ohio and Mississi|ipi to New Or- 
leans. Up to the middle of the last century the English 
had not atiemi^led to explore or settle the regions lying 
beyond the Hlue Ridge and Allesihany mountains, but 
in 1749 a company of traders from London and Vir- 
ginia, called the Ohio co.njjany, obtained a grant from The Ohio 
the crown of OOO.OOO acres of land on the cast bank of <-'<'mpa"y- 
the Ohio river, in what is now West Virginia and Penn- 
sylvania. In the years immediately following they 
made surveys and established a few settlements. One 
of the surveyors was George Washington. 

30. The French, regarding these operations of the 
Ohio Company as an encroachment upon their ter- 
ritory, strengthened the fort at Niagara, built another 
at Presque Isle (17.'j3), now Erie, established Posts at 
La Bteuf and Venango (now Waterford and Franklin, 
in the oil region of northwestern Penn.sylvania), seized 
the English traders, and confiscated their goods. When 
rumors eame of what the French had done. Governor 
Umwiddie of Virginia sent Washington, then not yet ^'"f**'"?" 
twenty-two years of age, to look into the matter, ands^ou!™'^" 
expostulate with the French regarding tb(dr encroach- 
ments. After an arduous and perilous winter journey 
Wasliington brought back such a report of the deter- 
mination and activity of the French, that the N'irginia 
Assembly at once took measures to build a fort (1704) 

at the junction of the Monongahela and Alleghany 
rivers; bul%vhile the fort was being erected the French 
suddenly appeared, drove the English away, and 
finished for themselves the fort, which they called 
Fort Du Qucsne. 

31. In the meantime, a body of 400 men had been 
raised in Virginia and North Carolina, and sent out 
under Washington into the disputed territory. Meet- 
ing at Grand Meadows a French force which had been^""l''''C- 
sent out to intercept him, he attacked and defeated ^'^','^fj[;'' 
them (17.54). Learning of the approach of a greatly 
superior force of the enemy, he erected Fort Necessity. 

ilere he was attacked by the French, and compelled to 
surrender, but on honorable terms. During this time, 
both the rival governments of France and England 
were making preparations for the coming struggle, 
though there was no formal declaration oif war until 

n.-io. 

33. In 1755 General Braddock, with a force of defMl"*"^' * 
English and American troops, marched against Fort 
Du (^uesne, but was defeated with great slaughter, 
and but for the skill displayed by Washinirton the 
whole army woidd have been annihilated. Braddock 
himself was mortally wounded, and died shortly after- 
wards. After Ids death. General Shirley took com- 
mand, and made an attempt to reduce Fort Niagara, 
but accomplished nothing. General William .Iohn.son 
was ajipoiuted to attack Crown Point. He defeated 
the French General Dieskau in the battle of Lake 
George (Sept. 5, 17r)5), but was unable to reach Crowa 



UNITED STATES 



Point. In the same year all the French inhabitants of 
Acadia were banished. 
Trench and 33. In May, 1756, war was formally declared by 
Indian War.Great Britain, and by France in the following month. 
Lord Loudon was appointed commander-in-chief of all 
the forces in America, but owing to necessary delay, 
General Abercrombie preceded him and took the com- 
mand. The Manpiis of Montcalm became the French 
commander. Abercrombie awaited the arrival of Loudon 
before attempting anything. Both officers proved in- 
efflcient, and by their delays allowed the French not 
only time to strengthen their posts, but also to attack 
those of the English. 
riimrai!;ns 34. In August, 1756, Montcalm captured Fort Ontario 
"' rpv ^^^^ '^ large number of military stores, guns, prisoners 
^° ' '' and vessels. In June. 1757, Lord Loudon organized an 
expedition against Louisburg, but abandoned the at- 
tempt on learning that the garrisim at that place had 
been strongly reinforced by a French fleet. In the 
meantime, Montcalm, collecting his forces at Ticon- 
dcroga, marched against Fort William Henry, and 
compelled it to surrender. After the surrender, many 
of the garrison were massacred by the French Indian 
allies. Thus after four years' hostilities, the incom- 
petency of the British commanders still gave the French 
the advantage. But a change in the British home 
policy changed the aspect of the war. The celebrated 
William Pitt was called to the ministry, and immediately 
began to act with vigor. Abler officers were appointed 
to command, and expeditions organized against dif- 
ferent points. Louisburg was captured July 27, 1758. 
Fort Du Quesne also was taken, and its name changed 
to Fort Pitt. General Abercrombie' s attack on Ticou- 
deroga(July, 1758,) met with a bloody repulse, but Port 
Frontenac was taken, with a large quantity of stores 
and goods. 
The 35. Pitt now determined to dispossess the French of 

Conquest ofthe whole of their American territory. Their armies 
Canada, -y^r^rg directed at the same time against three of their 
strongest posts, Quebec, Ticcnderoga and Montreal. 
General Amherst captured Ticonderoga July, 1759. 
Fort Niagara surrendered to Sir William Johnson July 
25, 1759. But the most importc-nt feature of the cam- 
paign was the taking of the almost impregnable fort- 
ress of Quebec by the gallant Wolfe, who lost his life 
in the action. Soon after Montreal surrendered to Am- 
herst. In this campaign the French were driven from 
all the important posts in Canada, and their power in 
America was broken forever. The war was virtually 
at an end, though peace was not restored until the 
The Treatysigning of the Treaty of Paris, February, 1763. By 
of Paris. n^\^ agreement, to which Spain and Portugal were also 
parties. Prance surrendered everything east of the Mis- 
sissippi, except New Orleans, to England. New Or- 
leans and that part of Louisiana beyond the Mississippi 
were ceded to Spain In the French. In exchange for 
Havana, which had been captured by the British, 
Spain yielded Florida to England. In 1800 Spain re- 
stored Louisiana to France, and Napoleon sold it to the 
United states in 1803. 
■pontiac'B 36. When the treaty of peace was signed, it was 
^"- trusted that there would be an end to those horrid rav- 

ages which had desolated the interior of the country. 
But the month of May, 17G3, proved the fallacy of 
such hopes. The Indians did not wish to see the coun- 
try transferred by the French to the English. It was 
one thing to have the French trading among them, 
another to have the hated English occupying their 
lands. It was about this time that the famous insur- 
rection of the Indian tribes broke out. The Delawares 
and Shawnees and other of the tribes of the Ohio were 
foremost in this conspiracy. Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, 
was the prime mover and master spirit in this affair, 
and hence it is called Pontiac's war. Pontiac ex- 
pected the French to join him, for they were secretly 
encouraging him. Most of the western tribes were 



drawn by him into the plot, bat Sir William Johnson 
prevented a greater part of the Iroquois from joining 
him. Pontiac's plans were deeply laid, and conducted 
with Indian craft and secrecy. At a concerted time an 
attack was made upon all the posts from Detroit to 
Port Pitt (formerly Fort Du Quesne). The Indiana 
captured and destroyed eight of the twelve forts, but 
were unable to take the important posts of Detroit and 
Fort Pitt, though Pontiac besieged the former place 
for five months. The frontiers of Maryland, Virginia 
and Pennsylvania were laid waste, and terrible havoc 
wrought in the frontier settlements. The English, 
surprised by the first attack, soon roused themselves 
and met the danger promptly. The power of the tribes 
became broken, and most of them sued for peace. 
Pontiac retired to the Illinois country, and made a 
stand there for some time longer, fiuallv submitting 
in 1766. 

III. CAUSES OP TILE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 

37. The addition to the British empire of new prov- 
inces, equal in extent to old kingdoms, not only ex- 
cited the jealousy of European powers, but occasioned 
doubts in the minds of enlightened British politicians 
whether or not such immense acquisitions of territory 
wouUI conduce to the '^nefit of the parent state. 
They saw, or thought they saw, the seeds of disunion 
I'lanU'd in the too widely extended empire. To com- 
bine in one uniform system of government the exten- 
sive territory then under British sway.appeared to men 
of reflection a work of doubtful practicability; nor 
were their conjectures at fault. The seeds of discord 
wore soon planted, and speedily grew up to the rend- 
ing of the empire. The high notions of liberty and in- 
dependence which were nurtured in the colonies by 
their local situation, and the state of society in the 
new world, were increased by the removal of hostile 
neighbors. The events of the war had also given them 
some experience in military operations, and confidence 
in their own ability. Foreseeing their future impor- 
tance from the rapid increase of their numbers and 
extension of their community, and beiug extremely 
jealous of their rights, they readily admitted and in- 
dulged in sentiments and ideas which were favorable 
to independence. While combustible materials were 
daily collecting in the new world, a spark to kindle 
the whole was produced in the old. 

38. In the first period of the settlement of English ^,'|!^'°.°'' 
America, the mother country regarded the provinces as petes, 
instruments of commerce. She contented herself with 

a monopoly of their tr.ade without taking upon herself 
the care of their internal policy, or seeking a revenue 
from them. Previous to the close of the war in 1755, 
the catalogue of grievances she imposed upon the 
colonists was undoubtedly small. The following ap- 
pear to have been the chief: An act of the British par- 
liament forbidding the cutting down of pitch and tar 
trees, not being within a fence orenclosure, and sundry 
acts which operated against colonial manufactures. 
By one of these, it was made illegal after the 24th of 
June, 1750, to erect in the colonies any mill or olhtT 
engine for slitting or rolling iron, or any plating forge, 
to work with a tilt hammer, or any furnace for mak- 
ing steel. By another, hatters were restrained from 
taking more than two apprentices at a time, or any 
for less than seven years. The colonists were also 
prohibited from transporting hats and home manu- 
factured woolens from one province to another. These 
regulations were, for the most part, evaded; but if car- 
ried into execution, would have been but slightly in- 
convenient, and that only to a few. These restrictions, 
though seemingly a species of affront, and calculated 
to keep the colonists in a constant state of inferiority 
and subjection, would have been overlooked and for- 
gotten had not other grievances been superadded. 

39. The sad story of colonial oppression began in the 



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Colonial year 1764. Great Britiiin tlicii miopteil new resulaliims 
opi)rufsion. jg^|,L.(.ti„g iier colonists, which, after (listurbiui? the 
anciint harmony of the two countries for aliout twelve 
years, terminated in the liismemberinent of the em- 
pires. These consisted in restri<-'ins their formercom- 
mercc. Imt more especially in suljjecting them to taxa- 
tion by the British parliament. The imposition of 
duties, for the purpose of raisiny a revenue in America, 
•wa.s considered as a danijerous innovation, liut the 
methods adopted for securiiii,' their collection were re- 
sented as arbitrary and unconstitutional. It was emu-ted 
by parlianiiMit, that whoever was cau^;ht violalin.i; the 
acts, should be tried in the courts of admiralty. Thus 
the defendant in such ii case was deprived of the rij{ht 
of trial by jury, and subjected to the necessity of hav- 
ini; his case decided upon by a sin^jle man. a creature 
of the crown, whose salary was to be paid out of for- 
feitures adjudged by himself. Moreover, the prose- 
cutor wa'^ not called upon to prove his accusation, so 
the defenilant was obliged, either to evince his iiuio- 
cence or to suffer. Thus the guards which the British 
constitution had placed around property and the bar- 
riers whicli the ancestors of both c(mntries had erected 
against arbitrary power, were thrown down, as far as 
they concerned the colonists thus charged with violat- 
ing the laws for raising a revenue in America. 

40. After the peace of Paris. 1708. the national debt 
of Great Britain amo.iuted to nearly 150. 0(10. 000 ster- 
ling. To aid in diminishing this heavy debt, the British 
minister conceived the idea of raising a substantial rev- 
enue in the British colonies, from taxes imposed by the 
parliament of the mother country. On the one hand it 
was urged that the late war had originated on account 
of the colonics — that it was reasonable, since it liad 
terminated in a manner so favorable to their interests, 
that they should help to defray the expenses arising 
from it. Thus far both parties were agreed; but Eng- 

Eiieli-h '>""' contended that her parliament, as the supreme 
Tli.-..ry power, bad the constitutional right to impose them on 
nf Colonial every part of the empire. This theory, nlausilile in 
Tttxaiion. n^^if^ and in accordance with the letter of" the British 
constitiilion, when all the dominions were represented 
The Col- in one assembly, was denied by the colonies as con- 
Tluoryof trary to the spirit of the same government, when, on 
Taxation' account of the extension of the ernpire,it was necessary 
to liave many distinct representative assemblies. The 
colonists believed that the chief excellence of the 
British constitution consisted in the rifht of the subject 
to gram or withhold taxes, and in their having a share 
in enacting the laws by which they were to be bound. 
They conceived that the superiority of the British con- 
stitution to other forms of government was. not be- 
cause of the parliament's forming the supreme coimcil 
of the nation, but because the people had a share in it 
by appointing members who constituted one of its 
constituent branches, and without whose concurrence 
nil law, binding on them, could be enacted. In the 
parent stale it was asserted to be essential to the unity 
of the empire, that the British parliament should have 
the right of taxation over every part of the royal 
dominions. In the colonies it was believed that taxa- 
tion and representation were inseparable, and that 
they, as colonies, could neither be free nor happy if 
their property could be taken from them without their 
con.scnt. The American people reasoned thus; That if 
the British parliament, in which they had no repre- 
sentation, were able to take any part of their property 
from them by direct taxation, then they might take 
as much as they pleased, and there would be no 
security for anything that remained from further 
spoliation. 

41. The colonists claimed that they had the exclusive 
right of laying taxes on themselves, free from ex- 
traneous influences, just as much as the British Par- 
liament claimed the peculiar privilege of raising money 
independent of the crown. The parent slate appeared 



to the colonists to stand in the same relation to their 
local legislators as the monarch of Ureal Britain to the 
British Parliament. His perogative is limited by that 
palladium of the people's liberty, the exclusive privi- 
lege of /T-ranting their own money. In fact, they 
claimeil that though subjects of the King, they were 
not under the cimtrol of the British Parliament ; that 
if the King recpiired money of the colonies, he must 
obtain it through colonial legislation, just as in Eng- 
land he would obtain it througti the British 
Parliament. 

4'i. The charters, which were supposed to contain the Tbcdispate 
principles on which the colonies were founded, became about the 
the subject of serious investigation on both sides. One Cbarters. 
clause was found to run through the whole of them, 
e.'^ccpt that which had been granted to William Penn. 
This was a declaration, " that the emigrants to America 
should enjoy llie same privileges as if they had re- 
mained, or had been born, within the realm ;' but such 
was the subtUiy of di.sputants that both parties con- 
strued this general principle so as to favor their respec- 
tive o(iiuion3. The American people cimtended, that as 
English freeholders coidd not be taxed but by repres- 
entatives, in choosing whom they had a vote, neither 
could the colonists ; but it was answered that if the 
colonists had remained in England they must have 
been bound to pay the luxos imposed by Parliament. 
It was therefore inferred that, though taxed by 
that authority, they lost none of the rights of native 
Englishmen residing at home. The advocates of the 
British policy coidd see nothing in charters but security 
against ta.ves by roj-al authority. Tlie colonists, ad- 
hering to the spirit more than to the letter, looked 
upon their charters as a protection against all taxes 
not im[)o.sed by representatives of their own choice. 
The nature and extent of the connection between „. 
Great Britain and America was a great constitutional „eetion'ke- 
queslion, involving many interests and the general twcen 
prineii les of civil liberty. It was a vain attempt lo ij ''',"'■„ nnd 
decide this by any other recourse to parchment autliori America, 
ties, made at a time longjiast, wheumithcr the grantor 
nor grantees forsaw anything like the present state 
of the two countries. It needed great skill and tact to 
so manage aU'airs, that everythingmighl redound to the 
satisfaction and good of all concerned; to strike the 
middle line which would have secured as much liberty 
to the colonies, and as great a degree of supremacy to 
the mother coinilry as their common good required. 
But this skill was lacking in British statesmanship. 
On the one hand, the spirit of the British consiituiion 
was opposed to the idea that the British Parliamr-iit 
shouhl exercise the same unlimited authority over the 
unrepresented colonies which it exercised over the in- 
habitants of Great Britain. The cohmists, on the othiT 
hand, did not claim a tcilal exemption from its authority, 
but allowed the mother country a certain uudelinid 
prerogative over them; and accepted the idea that 
Parliament had a right to make any acts binding them 
in many stibjeets of internal policy and regul.itiug t lieir 
trade. That nice point, which marked the end of par- 
liamentary authority and the beginning of the colonial 
independence, was not ascertained. llad the question 
never been agitated, or had a satisfactory compromise 
been effected, the American Revolution, tiiidoubtedlj', 
would never have become a part of our history. 

4:i. Thegreal French and Indian war, though crowned 
with success, had aroused a spirit of discontent iu the „, _ „,_ 
colonies. From the beginning, as has been shown, the ,.,rictivc 
commercial policy of England toward the colonies had I'lilicyof 
been wholly restricted. " It wasasysteniof monopoly." England. 
Her navigation laws had clo.sed their ports against 
foreign vessels ; obliged thera to export their produc- 
tions only to eoiuitries belonging to the British crown ; 
to import European goods solely from England, and in 
English ships; and hid stibjected the trade between 
the colonies to duties. All manufactures, too, in the 



UNITED STATES 



colonies, that might interfere with those of the mother 
couiiiry had beeu either totally prohibited, or subjected 
to intolerable restraints. The acts of Parliament, im- 
posin,ir these restrictions and prohibitions, had at 
varioiis times caused great discontent and opposition on 
the part of the colonists, especially amoni; those of 
New En.gland. But noihing so aroused the jealous 
sensibilities of the colonists as any attempts on the 
part of the parent stale to raise a revenue from them 
by taxation. They had ever maintained, from the 
earliest period of their establishment, that they could 
only be taxeil by a legislature in which they were 
represented. 

44. While the Frtnch war was in progress, many 
projects -were hatched in Euyland witli regard to the 
colonies which were to be put hi force when peace 
Tho At- -was declared. In 1700, an attempt was made in Boston 
C™npct'° '" collect duties on foreign sugar and molasses im- 
Daties. ported into the colonies. Writs of assistance were 
a[)plied for by customhouse otiicers, empowering them 
to break open stores, ships and private dwellings in 
search of goods that had paid no duty, and to compel 
others to assist them in carrying out their odious 
measures. The merchants opposed the writ on con- 
stituiioiial grounds. The question was brought into 
the courts, where James Otis argued so eloquently in 
favor of American rights, that all who heard him were 
ready to oppose all writs of assistance. John Adams, 
who was present, said, "Then and there was the first 
scene of opposition to the arbitrary claims of Great 
Britain. Then and there American Independence was 
born." In his speech, Otis used the words, "Taxation 
without representation is tyranny." This sentence 
became a watchword in America during the exciting 
limes whir-h folliiwed. 
The Stamp 4,5. lu lT(i.5 Loril Grenville, having previously given 
^'^^- notice of his imeniious to the American agents in 

London. introducc<l into Parliament a long cherished 
scheme for the purpose of raising a revenue from the 
American colonies by means of a stamp duty. Peti- 
tions poured in against it from the Americans, and at 
tirst it met with strong opposition in the House of 
Commons. But the remonstrances of the colonies 
could not change the avaricious feelings of Parliament, 
and the bill passed by a large majority. Those short- 
sighted legislators did not foresee that in the passage 
of an act so odious to the colonies, they were awaken- 
ing an opposition and spirit of independence among 
thtm which would materially weaken their own 
power. The night after the bill passed Benjamin 
Franklin, who was then in London, wrote to Mr. 
Charles Thomson, "The sun of liberty is set; you 
must light up the candles of industry and economy." 
Mr. TLiomson answered, "I was apprehensive that 
othiT lights would be the consequence, and I foresee 
the opposition that will be made." 
file Pro- 4G. By this act, no written instrument, such as com- 
the'stamp iDercial transactions, marriage licenses, deeds, suits at 
Act. law, and the like, could be legal, unless stamped paper 

was used, which the colonists were compelled to pur- 
chase at an exorbitant price of the British agents. 
Moreover, it contained another staHliug provision, and 
that was, that the colonial legislatures were commanded 
to grant permission to billet the royal troops in 
America in inns, alehouses, barns, and vacant houses, 
and to furnish them with bedding, potables, candles, 
cooking utensils, etc. As soon as it became known 
The oxcite- that the Stamp Act was passed, the colonies, from one 
thi'cMl'hv' ®"'^' °^ ^^^ ''^"'^ ''" ^^^ other, were full of indignation, 
ilie passageParliKment had turned adeaf ear to their petitions, and 
of the Act. showed by the passage of the Act a determination to 
treat them, not as English citizens, but as servants and 
slaves. Parliament, they said, might make laws to 
regulate the commerce of the empire, and so draw a 
revenue from America, Init it had no right to levy a 
direct tax like this. Only the colonirl government. 



elected by the people, could do such a thing. They 
must either surrender without a struggle their liberty, 
or oppose strongly and firmly the grasping avarice of a ' 
nation, the most powerful iu the world. 

47. They were not long in making up their decision 
and proclaiming it to the world. The legislature of 
Virginia v/aa in session when the news arrived. Patrick patrj^t 
Henry, then a young num. but possessed of brilliant u'enry. 
talents, opposed it with all the energy of his great 
mind. He brought before the house five resolutions 
which were adopted, and which closed by declaring. 
"That any person, who, by speaking or acting, should 
assert or maintain that any class of men except the 
general assembly of the province, had a right to im- 
pose taxation, he should be considered an enemy to his 
majesty's colony." In advocating tlie^e resolutions, 

he boldly denounced the policy of the Crilish f;overn- 
ment, and declared that the king had acted the [lart of 
the tyrant. Warming up with his subject. anit..llud- 
ing to the fate of other tyrants, he exclaimed tvilh 
flashing eyes and in thunder tones, "Caesar h;iri Lis 
Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and CTCorge III" — 
"Treason! treason!" arose from every part of the 
house. Pausing a moment until the tumult had sub- 
sided, he added, "may profit by their example. If 
this is treason make the most of it." Similar senti- 
ments flew like lightning through the other coloides. 
The tongues and pens of the citizens labored to kindle 
the latent sparks of patriotism. The press strongly 
opposed the innovation and called upon the citizens to 
resist it. 

48. The expediency of calling a continental congress, The Copti- 
to he composed of deputies from each of the provinces, "ental Con- 
had early occurred to Massachusetts. So the assembly Si'^^s- 

of that province fixed on New York as the place, and 
the second Tuesday of October, 176.5, as the time for 
holding the congress, and invited all the other colonies 
to send delegates to the same. Nine colonies took part 
in it, and sent their most distinguished men. For the 
first time the whole country had a common cause, and 
there was need that the people should consult together. 
This congress drew up a declaration of their rights and 
a statement of their grievances. They asserted in 
strong terms their exemption from all taxes not im- 
posed by their own representatives. They also con- 
curred in a petition to the king, a memorial to the 
House of Lords, and a petition to the House of Com- 
mons. The colonies that were prevented from sending 
their delegates, forwarded petitions, similar to those 
which were adopted by the deputies who attended. 

49. On the 1st of November, the day on which the 
Stamp Act was to go into operation, the bells were 
tolled, and the flags hung at half mast, as if for the 
"funeral of liberty." The courts were closed; busi- 
ness was suspended. The houses of the British otBoials 
were attacked by mobs, and the effigies of the planners 
of the Act were carried about the streets in public 
derision and then burned, or torn in pieces by the 
enraged populace. In different parts of the country 
the stamp-masters were compelled to resign their 
offices to prevent being mobbed. The (Stamp Act was 
so formed that the penalty of disobedience would be 
no less than the suspension of the whole machinery of 
the political and social order, and the creation of a 
state of anarchy. Neither trade nor navigation could 
proceed, no contract could be legall3' made, no process 
against an offender could be instituted, no student 
could receive a diploma, nor even could the estates of 
the dead be legally settled, or the marriage ceremony 
performed, until the stamp duty was paid. By degrees, 
however, things began to assume their usual course, 
and all kinds of business was transatited in open 
defiance of the Ac!. 

50. As-ociations, undtr the title of the "Sons of Sons ot 
Liberty." were formed iu every part of the country, ^''"^"''y' 
They denounced the Stamp Act as being an outrage on 



U N I T ]'] D ST A '1^ E S 



Tlio ElTci-l 
Id Ku^laud. 



Rf]]«-Hl of 

the Stamp 
All. 



How iho 

KcWB Wits 

Received. 



Anew 

Scheme of 
TaxntloQ. 



The Seiz- 
ure of Uan 
cock's 
Sloop 



the British constitution, and resolved that they would 
defend those who fell into the hands of Briiish t\ r- 
aniiv, on aecount of their clinsrins to their rights as 
freemen. Jlerchants resolved to import no more goods 
from Great Britain until the act was repealed, and the 
people generally denied themselves the use of foreign 
lii.\uries. No one would veniure to carry the htamp 
Act in'o execution; in fact, no stamped paper was to 
be seen; all had been either destroyed or concealed. 

51. The information of the violent proceedings of the 
colonies was received in England wilh consternation. 
A small parly in Parliament upheld the colonies. In 
the House of Commons William Fiit uttered the mem- 
orable words: "We are told that America is ofinti/iale 
— America is in open reliellion. Sir. I rfjoiee that 
Ami rim /ins ri'sistfd .' Three millions of people so dead 
to all the feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to 
be slaves woidd have been tit instruments to make 
slaves of all the rest." In the meantime Lonl Oren- 
ville had been dismissed, and the .Manjuis of Kocking- 
him, a friend of the Amerinins. appointed in h'\* place. 
Under his administraiion llieobiio.\i<)u>) Stamp Act was 
repealed March 18, ITdti. for the English government 
saw that it was impossible to enforce it. At the same 
time. Parliament took caro to say that it "had a right 
to hind the eo/onics in r!l niafs whatever." 

53. The news of the repeal was received with the 
liveliest expressions of joy and gratitude. Public 
thauksgivinL'8 were held. English goods imported and 
a general calm succeeded the slorm which had raired 
so violently. By the people of New England and New 
York less joy was fell. They feared, from the passage 
of the declaratory act. that this was only a truce in the 
war against American rights. In the mirror of the 
pa-l they saw reflected the future, and trembled at the 
picture. Nor were their suspicions unfounded. 
Scarcely had the excitement over the Stamp Act died 
out, when other causes of complaint arose. In .lune. 
1767, Charles Townsend, chancellor of the excheciuer, 
brought into Parliament a bill imposing duties in the 
British colonies on glass, paper, painters' colors and 
tea, which became a law. Another law was also en- 
acted, appointing officers of the navy as customhouse 
officers, to enforce the act of trade and navigation. 
Previous to this new act of tj-ranny, the legislative 
power of New York had been suspended, until it 
shou'd furnish the king's troops with certain supplies 
at the expense of the colony. 

53. Early in 17C8 the general court of Massachusetts 
sent a petition to the king, and adtlrejsed circular let- 
ters to the colonial assemblies, asking their coopera- 
tion in obtaining (he redress of their grievances. The 
British ministry were alarmed and (iemanded of the 
court that they should rescind the vote directing circu- 
lars to be sent. The assembly .'efused, and the gov- 
ernor dissolved it. This attempt to intimidate only 
served to strengthen the opposition. Shortly after 
this Mr. Hancock's sloop Liberty was seized for not 
having entered all the wines brought from Madeira. 
This act of the custom-house officers was resented by 
the people. The houses of the otlicials were attacked, 
and they were compelled to seek safety in fiight. The 
refractory spirit of the citizens of Boston had been dis- 
played on so many occasions that General Gage was 
directed to station one or more regiments there to over- 
awe the citizens and protect the officers in the dis- 
charge of their duties. Two regiments were accord- 
ingly ordered from Halifax, who took possession of the 
stale hoiise, and [ilanted two pieces of c!\nnon at the 
principal entrance. All this only tended to increase 
the general indignation. 

.54. Early in the year 17G9 Parliament passed resolu- 
tions censuring the conduct of the citizens of Massa- 
chusetts, and directing the governor to make strict in- 
quiries as to all trea'-ous committed in that province 
since the year 1707, that the offenders might bC- sent to 



England for trial. The legislature of Virginia, on the 
receipt of tliut order. i)assed resolutions denying the 
right of the king to remove an olfender out of the col- 
on}' — away from his home an<t frien<ls — for trial. The 
governor, on hearing of the resolutions, immediately 
dismissed the assembly. The members met at a private 
house, and entered into a written agreement not to im- 
port any of the taxed articles. Their example was ex- 
tensively followed. The assemby of Massachusetts 
convened, but refused to proceed to business while 
armed troops surrounded the state house. The gov- 
ernor refus(>d to remove them, and the as.sembly ad- 
journed to Cambridge. Toward the close of the sea- 
son the governor re(|uested Ihera to provide funds to 
pay for the quartering of the troops, but they refused, 
declaring that they would never make any provisions 
to support a sLanding army among them in times of 
peace. The governor, therefore, prorogued the assem- 
bly. 

55. The presence of the soldiers in Boston was a T"''<^ Boston 
constant cause of irritation, and the citizens had many ''»*''"'="'• 
quarn'ls with them. At length on March 5. 1770. a 

serious collision occurred between the troops and a 
mob, and the soldiers lired, killing five of the crowd, 
and mortally wounding two others. The reports of 
this Boston massacre, as it was called, were greatly 
exaggerated, and tilled the country with excitement. 
The citizens assembled in crowds, and could only lie 
dispersed by the governor promising lliem tloit justice 
should be done. The troops were removed from the 
city, aiul Captain I'reston, who ordered the Bring, and 
his miMi tried for murder. Although the excitement 
was intense, yet such was the love of justice that the 
soldiers, who were defended by John Adams and Josiah 
Quincy, were all acquitted except two, who were con- 
victed of manslaughter. 

56. In England, on the very day of the outrage in 
Boston, Lord North was called to the British Ministry, 
He introduced a bill into Parliament which passed Lofd 
on A|iril \'i, removing the duties that had been laid 



North's 
IJill. 



in I7()7, excepting that on tea, but still declaring their 
right of taxing the colmiies. For a long time no lea 
had been imported, and the effect had begun to be 
severely felt by the British merchants. By an act of 
Parliament, therefore, the East India company were 
allowed to import their teas into America free of duty 
in England. The naked question of the principle 
regarding taxation was thus presented. The scheme 
was an insidious one, but it failed most completely. 
Lord North supposed that by reducing the tax on tea 
to three pence a pound, the Americans would buy 
largely, thus relieving the East India company, who 
had large quantities f)f tea stored up in its English 
warehouses. Tea was accordingly shipped from Eng- 
land in great quantities to various jiarts of the colonies. 
This brought matters to a crisis. One sentiment jire- 
vailed throughout the whole continent. Taxation was 
to receive its final blow. Whoever submitted to it was 
an enemy to his country. From New York and Phila- 
delphia the ships were sent back, wilh their cargoes, to 
London. In Charleston the tea was landed, but not 
permitted to be sold, and being stored in damp cellars, 
finally perished. Still more decisive action was taken 
in Boston. The ships anchored in the harbor. Some 
small parcels of tea were brought on shore, but the sale 
of them was prohibited. The captains of the vessels 
would have made sail back to P^ngland, but they could 
not obtain the consent of the consignees, a clearance at 
the custom house, or a passport from the Governor to 
clear the port. To settle the matter completely, a com- 
pany of men disguised as Indians went on board the Dcstrnc- 
ships during the night rnd threw the cargoes into the ''"11"''"*' 
water. Three hundred and forty-two chests were thus 
broken open and the contents thrown into the harbor 
(December 10. 177H). 
57. Wlien the tk ws of this affair reached England, 



UNITED STATES 



Agitation. 



The BostonParliament, in order to punish the inhabitants of Bos- 
Port BjU. j^jj^ passed the Boston Port Bill in 1774, which pre- 
vented the lading and unlading of goods, wares and 
merchandise in that town and harbor on and after June 
1. 1774, and the seat of government was to be transferred 
to Salem. But the people of Salem refused to build 
their fortunes on the ruins of their countrymen, and 
the inhabitants of Marblehead generously offered the 
Boston people the use of their warehouses and harbor, 
other Ty- In the following March, two other bills, equally tyran- 
BUls"^ nical, passed both houses of Parliament. One subverted 
the whole constitution and charter of Massachusetts, 
taking all power out of the hands of the people and 
ve>tiug it in the crown. The other authorized the gov- 
ernor to send any person indicted for murder or other 
capital offence committed in aiding the magistracy, to 
England or some other ccjlimy for trial. 
Popular 5§^ These laws, which were gross violations of the 

rights and charters of the colonies, excited the deepest 
inilignalion everywhere in America. The people of 
Boston, reduced to distress by the stoppage of their trade, 
were regarded as martyrs of liberty, and contributions 
were made for their relief, not only in the thirteen col- 
onies, but even in London and Quebec. In Boston 
itself, although patriotic meetings were held almost 
daily in Fam-uil Hall and the Old South Church, all 
disoniiTly and uiiconslitutional proceedings were 
av lided, so tliat nothing was done for which the British 
authoriiies could punish the people. The friends of 
the crown about this time became known as Tories, 
auti the popular party as Whigs. The Quebec Act, 
which was passed among the other acts just mentioned, 
extended the boundaries of Canada over the whole ter- 
ritory situated north of the Ohio, and east of the 
Jf i^sissippi. This was done to prevent Canada from 
joining ItiC rebellious colonies. The colonies warmly 
protested against this concession to liberty of con- 
science, for the Actsanctioned throughout the province 
the free exercise of the Roman Catholic religion, and 
conlirined to the clergy of that profession their accus- 
tumeti dues and rights, thus practically establishing the 
Roman t'aiholic system in the new territory. To such 
freedom (be colonists were on princijile opposed at the 
time, though somewhat later they found it e.xpedient to 
adopt nearly the same policy, and to promote a closer 
union among themselves by juster treatment of their 
Roman Caiholic brethren. 

59. Committees of correspondence had already been 
formed at the sugtrestion of Patrick Henry. Thomas 
Jefferson, Richard Henry Lee and other Virginians, and 
by this mi aus the colonies took counsel together for 
the common defense. In May, 1774, proposals were 
made by the assemblies of several of the provinces for 
a general congress of delegates. The scheme was 
taken up with great enthusiasm, and on September 5, 
1774, an assembly of tifty-tive delegates, representing 
all the colonies except Georgia, met in Philadelphia, 
under the presidency of Pt^ytou Randolph, of Virginia. 
The old This was the first or, as it is often called, the "old" 
ContlnentalcontiTieiiial congress. The action of this body was still 
Congress, mj^i^iy deliberative. They passed a resolution highly 
commending the conduct of Massachusetts in the con- 
flict with the wicked ministers, and exhorted all to press 
on in the cause of liberty. They drew up a bill of 
rights, entered into an agreement for themselves and 
for all their constituents to cease all importations from 
Great Britain, and adopted measures for organizing 
committees in every town and citj' to see that this 
agreement was enforced by every species .if popular 
nlluence. They also voted an address to the king, one 
to the people of Great Britain and another to Canada. 
Their petiiion to the king entreated him, in elotjuence 
the most affectionate and respectful, to restore to them 
their violated rights — their rights as English freemen. 
Provision was tlien made for another congress to meet 
in the following May, unless the grievances should 



meanwhile be redressed. When the proceedings of 
Congress were published in England, Pit' (now Lord 
Chatham) said: "For solidity of reason, force of saga- Pitt's 
city and wisdom of conclusion under a complication of Opinion, 
difficult circumstances no nation or body of men can 
stand in preference to the general congress at Phila- 
delphia. The histories of Greece and Rome give us 
nothing equal to it, and all attempts to impose servitude 
upon such a mighty continental nation must be in 
vain." 

60. These resolutions of the Continental Congress 
aroused the indignation of the British government. 
America, they said, had long wished to become inde- 
pendent, and to prevent this was the duty of every 
Englishman, and that it must be done at every hazard. 

In the meantime, the situation of affairs in Massachu- The Peapi.> 
setts became alarming. The people collected arms, en- Take Anns, 
rolled themselves into companies and prepared to turn 
out at a moment's notice, from which circumstance they 
were called "minute men.'' Public speakers and writ- 
ers bolilly defended the ritrht of th" people to with- 1 
stand oppression. Royal officers were forced to resign. 
General Gage began to fortify Boston Neck, and the 
powder and other military stores in Cambridge and 
Charleston were, by his order, removed to Boston. He 
had about 4.000 troops under him, and sent home a re- 
quest for 20.000 more. An assembly was called in Mas- 
sachusetts, but dissolved by the governor. The mem- 
bers then met in Salem, appointed a committee of 
safety and sent messengers to New Hampshire, Rhode 
Island and Connecticut, asking for their assistance in 
raising an army of 20,000 men to act in any emergency. 
England, although she could distinctly see the upheav- 
ing of the violence of colonial indignation, shut her 
eyes to the sight. Chatham, Burke, Fox. Barri and 
other enlightened statesmen in Parliament urged the 
government to recede from its untenable position, but 
the obstinacy of the King prevented any conciliation; 
it was resolved that America was in rebellion and must 
be subdued; and so the revolution began. 

61. It was a fortunate circumstance for the colonies 
that the royal army was jjosted in New England. 
The people of that northern country have their ijassions 
more under the command of reason and interest than 
in a southern climate. One rash, offensive action 
against the royal forces at this early period, though 
successful, mi^ht have worked great mischief to the 
American cause. It would have lost them European 
friends and weakened the disposition of the other col- 
onies to assist them. The patient and the politic New Conduct of 
England men, fully sensible of their situation, snbtnit- the People, 
ted to many insults and restrained their feelings of re- 
sentment. In civil wars or revolutions it is a matter of 

much consequence who strikes the first blow. The 
compassion of the world is nearly always in favor of 
the attacked. For the space of nine months after the 
arrival of General Gage the behavior of the people of 
Boston is particularly worthy of imitation by those who 
wish to overturn established governmenis. They con- 
ducted their opposition with exquisite address. They 
avoideil every kind of outrage and violence, preserved 
peace and good order among themselves, successfully 
engaged the other colonies to make ccnnmon cause with 
them and counteracted General Gage so effectually as 
to prevent his doing anything for his royal master, 
while by patience and moderation they protected them- 
selves from j\ist censure. Though resolved to bear as 
long as pruilence and policy diciaicd. they were all the 
time preparing for the last extremity by furnishing 
themselves with arms antl training their militia. 

6'2. Provisions had also been collected and stored in The Begin- 
dift'erent places, particularly at Concord, about twenty '.""" "^"''^ 
miles from Boston. General Gage sent out a detach- "^ ' 
ment of 800 men. under the command of Colonel 
Smith anil Jltijor Pitcairn. to destroy these stores. 
Notwithstanding the precautions taken to prevent the 



UNITE J) STATES 



spread of the intelligence, the ninrch of the troops had 
befii well niaile known by expresses an<l signal guns. 
Thus, when the British troops, early in the morning of 
the 14th of April, 1773, reached Lexington, two-thirds 
of the way to Concord, they found a small body of 
Americans, under Captain Parker, drawn up on the 
common to dispute the way. Captain Parker had 
given orders not to lire unless fired upon. The IJritish 
troops ru.shed upon them, firing and calling upon thep.i 

Lcxliiston to disperse. Eight of the Americans were killed and 
"jli*""" ""'' several more woumied. The little band of patriots 

'^" ' slowly retreaied. returning the tire as they went, and 

the Hriiish kept on to Concord, where they destroyed 
a few stores. At a bridge near the village they encoun- 
tered 400 Americans, hastily collected from the neigh- 
boring towns, and were so warmly received that they 
began a liasiy retreat. The militia prcssi'il them on all 
sides; the retreat became a rout, and when the British 
were at liist rescued by the arrival of Lord Percy with 
reinforcements, they had l(isl27;i men. They continued 
their retreat under Percy, bearing their dead and 
wounded with them. All the way, from behind stone 
walls, fenci 9 and farmhouse.^, the angry farmers galled 
them with shot. They did not desist until the troops 
had crossed Charlestown Neck and were safe under the 
guns of the British vessels. 

C:i. As arms were to decide the controversy, it was 
anoiher fortunate circumstance for the Americans that 
the first blood was drawn in Kew England. The inhab- 
itants of that country W'ere so connected with each 
other by descent, manners, religion, politics and a gen- 
eral c<iua!iiy, that the killing of a single individual in- 
terested the whole people and made them consider it a 
common cause. Theblood of thnse who were killeil at 
Lexington and Concord proved to be the firm cement 
of an extensive union. Intelligence of these ev<'nls 
spread like wild lire throughout the country; the torch 
of war had been lighted, blood had been oil", red on the 
altar of liberty, fearfully was the death of tbo-e patri- 
ots slain at Lexington and Concord to be avenged. 
Couriers galloped in every direction, beating a drum, 
anil shouting in tones that thrilled every listening ear, 
"To arms, toarms! liberty or death." The streets of 
Lexington and Concord had been soaked in blood, and 
the whole country was in a blaze of wrath. But amidst 
the intense excitement which prevailed, the still thor- 
oughly English characteristics of the people mani- 
fested themselves. The provincial congress of Massa- 
chnssetis, which was in sessional the time of the tight, 
dispatched an account of it to Great Britain, accom- 
panied with many deposiiions to prove that the British 
were the aggressors. They also made an addn^ss to the 
people of Great Britain, in whii h, after complaining 
of their sufferings, they said: '' Tli. so have not yet de- 
tached us from our royal sovereign; we pMfess to be 
dutiful and loyal subjects, and though hardly dealt 
with as we have been, are still ready wiih our lives 
and fortunes to defend his person, crown and dignity. 
Nevertheless, to the persecution and tyranny of his 
evil ministry, we will not tamely submit." from this 
commencement of hostilities, the disjiute between 
Great Britain and the colonists took a new direction. 

C4. Up to this time no party in America hud thought 
of a separation from the mother cmutry, hut now the 
colonists were atlame with the spirit of independence. 

The Gather-Mechanics left their shops, and farmers the plow, and 

TrooDs hurried to the scene of conllict. In the course of one 
or two days the king's army touud it-elf besieged in 
Boston by an irregular and ill-furnished, but large and 
determined body of men who maiched to the scene of 
action from all parts of New England. The provincial 
congress of Massachussetts came together under the 
presidency of Ur. Joseph Warren, voted to raise 13.0(10 
men. and inviied the other New England colonists to 
make up the army lo 30,000. In a few days a line of 
encampment stretched from Roxhury to the river Mys- 



tic, and the British forces in Boston were environed by 
an army of 20,000 soldiers. Benedict Arnold gath- 
ered about him a hand of vol.inteers, and rushed to 
Boston. Here he formed the bold ])lan of seizing 
the important fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown 
Point. 

U-J. Having received instructions from the committee 
of safety to raise a sullicienl number of men for the 
[lurpose, he marched to Bennington, where he found 
that Colonel Ethan Allen had collected a large band 
for the same object. They marched on together at the 
head of three hundred men. and reached Ticonderoga 
on the loth of May, 1775. Advancing to the gateway, 
Arnold and Allen entering side by siile, Allen rushed Capture of 
to the governor's room and demanded liis surrender. '''i''"'«'<-'''- 
"In whose name'?" st-immered the terrilied governor. (yowIJ*' 
" In the name," said Allen, "of the Great .Jehovah and I'oiut. 
the Conlineiilal Congress." This was high authority, 
and the governor immediately surrendered. They were 
equally successful in ol)taining Crown Point. By this 
fortunate expedition they gained possession of two 
important fortresses, and gave the American troops 
about Boston a much-needeil supply of arms and am- 
munition. 

G6. The second Continental Congress met at Phila- Tlie Second 
delphia. May 10, the day of the capture of Ticonderoga. f;""^'n™tal 
Peyton Kandolph w.is at llrsl the president, but ,lohn ' 
Hancock soon succeeded him in that position. W ash- 
ington, .IelTerson,Fraiiklin.the Adamses. Patrick Henry 
and U. H. Lee, were members. The Congress was 
moderate, an<l asked only for a redress of grievances, 
not for independence; but it look active measures for 
carrying on the war. It formed a fedend union, as- 
sumed the general authority of government, issued 
bills of credit to the amount of three millions of dollars 
for defraying the milit;iry expen.ses, and i)ledged the 
faith of the United Colonies for their redemption. 

IV. — THR W.\R KOK IXDEPENDHNCE, 1775-83. 

67. In May. 1775, the British army in Boston re- 
ceiveii reinforcements from England, under Generals 
Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne, which, togeiher with 
the garrison, formed an army of more than twelve 
thousand men. The Americans comprised a number 
of independent commands under Generals Arlemus 
AVard, of Massachusselts; Israel Putnam, of Connecti- 
cut; Nathanael Green, of Rhode Island, and other 
stales, General W.ird being recognized as chief. The 
whole nunilier of m<n was about sixteen thousand. 
Upon the arrival of the English reinforcements, G(^n- 
eral Gage now proclaimed martial law throughout the 
state, offering pardon, however, lo all rebels who 
would return to their allegiances, excepting Samuel 
Adams and John Hancock. The Americans, learning 
thai General Gage was <letermined to penetrate into the 
country by the way of (Miarlestown Neck, issued orders 
to Colonel I'rescott, on Iheevening of the IGth of June, 
to take one thousand men and form an intrenchmeut 
on Bunker's Hill, an eminence which commanded the 
neck of the (,'hiirlestown peninsula. By some mistake 
they went further on. and occupied Breeds Hill. At 
midnijihl those stern hearted men stood on the top 
while I'utnam marked out the line of entrenchments. 
By daylight they had thrown up a redouhl eight rods 
square, in which they could shelter themselves. In the 
morning thc^ English ollicers and the people of Boston 
could hardly believe their eyes as they saw this ledoubt 
almost over their heads. The patriots on the hill were 
first seen from the ships, whiih immediately opened 
fire. All the artillery of the city and the lloating bat- 
tery were pointed against that single, silent structure. 
Still those hardy heroes toiled on amid the storm of 
shot and shell which fell among them, until by noon 
they had run a trench nearly down to the Mystic river 
on the north; then laying down their picks and shovels 



UNITED STATES 



they took up tbeir muskets, and prepared themselves 
for the coming uttack. 
Batiic of 68. The cannonading having failed to dislodge the 
BunkerHill Americans, about noon Gage sent abody of about three 
thousand men, under Howe and Pigot to carry the 
height by assault. Having crossed tLe Charles river 
from Boston in boati, they advanci-d up the hill under 
cover of fire from the ships and balieries. The pro- 
vincials stood firm. " Don't one of you fire," was the 
command of Putnam, "till you see the whites of their 
eyes." The Enulish' advanced, stopping every few 
yards, to deliver their deep and regular volleys against 
the intrenchment; but not a shot replied. That silence 
was more awful thun the thunder of cannon. When 
the hostile columns had almost reached the works, the 
stern order ■■Fire!" rang wiih starling clearness on the 
air. Suddenly a sheet of Uarae burst from that low. 
dark wall, and down went the enemy rank by rank. 
Their lines wavered, then broke, and the troops fell 
back in disorder to the landing place. There they 
rallied, and soon moved forward again to the charge, 
and again were driven back by the steady fire of the 
colonists. At this critical moment General Clinton 
arrived with reinforcements. By his exertions the 
troops were again rallied, and a third time advanced to 
the charge. Throwing aside their knapsacks and 
reserving their tire, the soldiers, with fixed baj'onets, 
marche(f swiftly and steadily over the heaps of their 
fallen comrailes. up to the intrenchments. Only one 
volley struck them, for the Americans had fired their 
last rounds of ammunition, and were without bayonets. 
Clubbing their muskets, they still beat back the enemy, 
until the order was given to retreat, when they retired 
slowly and made good their way over Charlestown 
Neck. At the beginning of the retreat the brave Gen- 
eral Warreu was killed. The Americans lost 449 in 
killed, wounded, and prisoners, while the British loss 
was nearly 1,500. The result of the battle was encour- 
aging to the provincials. It give them confidence in 
themselves, and consequence in the eyes of their 
enemies. They had proved to themselves and others 
that they could measure weapons with the disciplined 
troops of Europe, and inflict the most harm in the con- 
flict. This dear bought victory, won only through the 
exhaustion of the American's powder, was so little sat- 
isfactory to the British Government that General Gage 
was supeiseded by General Howe. This engagement, 
known as the battle of Bunker Hill, was the first real 
battle of the Kevolutionarv War. 
Waehing- 69. In the meantime. Congress on the 15th of June, 
ton ap- at Philadelphia, elected George Washington, by a 
Command- Unanimous vote, to the high office of commander-in- 
er"in"Mef. chief of the united colonies. Washington, who was 
present, accepted the appointment, expressing a sense 
of the high honor which he had received, and the vast 
responsibity of the station. He refused to accept any 
compensation for his services, merely asking Congress 
to defray his expenses. Congress also adopted the 
unorganized force before Boston, naming it the Con- 
tinental Army. In subordination to the commander- 
in-chief, Messrs. Ward, Charles Lee, Schuyler, and 
Putnam were appointed major-generals; Horatio Gates, 
adjutant-general, and Messrs. Pomeroy, Montgomery 
and .Wooster, Heath, Thomas. Spencer, Sullivan and 
Greene, brigadier generals. Soon after his election, 
General Washington, accompanied by Lee, proceeded 
to Cambridge to take command of the army, which 
amounted to about 14,000 men. He found them a 
crowd of brave, undisciplined soldiers, unprovided 
with arms, ammunition, and provisions. Ilis first busi- 
ness was to organize them into an army, while he kept 
watch over the British in Boston. 
Attack on 70. Meanwhile an expedition was organized for an 
Canada, attack on Canada, under the command of General 
Schuyler; but Schuyler, falling sick by the way, the 
command devolved on Richard Montgomery. This 



officer ca|itured St. Jobii's and Chambly, both on the 
Sorel river, and then made himself master of Montreal; 
but in making an assault on Quebec, December31,1775, 
he was repulsed, losing his own life, while Benedict 
Arnold, another leader, was wounded. Sometime 
afterward the British army in Canada was reinforced, 
and the Americans were obliged to abandon all designs 
in that quarter. While these events were taking place 
on the northern frontiers, English ships were laying 
waste towns and cities upon the Atlantic coast Bris- 
tol in Rhode Island, and Falmouth in Massachusetts, 
were burned because they had taken part in the rebel- 
lion. Congress thought it time to turn its attention to 
the construction of armed vessels. Thirteen were ac- 
cordingly fitted out, a navy established, and a large 
number of privateers licensed, which scoured the seas Fri^atpero 
and did great injury to the English commerce. Gen- "^™^^ • 
eral Washington employed in the service several 
cruisers to intercept the store ships of the enemy. 
Regular courts of admiralty were established for the 
adjudication of prizes, and by these timely measures 
much good was accomplished. 

71. In the summer of 1775, Dunmore, the royal in the 
Governor of Virginia, was driven out of Williamsburg, Soath. 
then the capital of the colony, and obliged to seek 
safety on board a British man of -war. Collecting some 
ships and a considerable number of men, partly slaves 
and indented servants, to whom he promised freedom, 
he burned Norfolk (.January, 1770), which was the largest 
and richest town in Virginia, and made descents upon 
various parts of the coast. In North Carolina there 
was some sharp fighting between the Tory settlers and 
the patriotic militia, in which the Tories were worsted. 
In South Carolina, the gallant defense of Charleston 
(•June, 1776,) where a British fleet, under Sir Peter 
Parker, aided by a large land force, under General 
Clinton, was beaten off with great loss by a small body 
of men commanded by Colonel Moultrie, filled the 
colonists with encouragement. 

73. During the year 1775 the royal government was 
generally tcrminateil throughout the country, the 
King's governors abdicating their posts and taking 
refuge on board the English shipping. An act was 
passed by the English Government prohibiting all trade 
and commerce with the rebellious provinces, and 
authorizing the capture of all American and other 
vessels found trading with the colonies, and the crews 
of the captured vessels were to be treated, not as 
prisoners, but as slaves. The colonists had sent over 
their last petition, styled the Olire Branch, to the King, 
but both houses of Parliament refused to hear it, 
alleging that they could not receive any proposition 
coming from an unlawful assembly. Until now they 
hoped for reconciliation with the mother countr}', but 
the rejection of this last petition determined the com- 
plete separation of Great Britain and the colonies. 

73. At the beginning of 1776 Washington, by the Events 
help of Congress, had succeeded in getting into mill- of 1T76. 
tary order the army, which now ceased to be a col- 
lection of little colonial militia organizations. On the 
2d of .January he hoisted the Union flag in compliment 
of the United Colonies. This flag bore the strips which 
are found in the flag of today, but the crosses of St. 
George and St. Andrew were retained on a blue ground 
in the corner, blending the ideas of a new nationality 
and English supremacy. The present flag was adopted 
June, 14, 1777. Early in March, Washington was 
ready to drive the British out of Boston. On the 
night of the 4th he occupied and fortified 
Dorchester Heights, ovclooking the harbor. General 
Howe, who succeeded George, saw that he must fight 
at a great disadvantage, or abandon the town. Think- Evacnation 
ing " discretion the better part of valor," he gathered of Boston, 
together his forces, took to the fleet and sailed away. 
With him went those families which had remained 
loyal to the king. Thus Boston was relieved of the 



U K i T i'] 1) S T A T J<. S 



presence of the British, to the grout joy of the inhabi- 
tants. There was now oiien war between the two 
countries. But after this New Enghmd scarcely knew 
the presence of soldiers, as it became the policy of Eng- 
land to strike at the heart of the colonics. Putting 
Boston in a slate of defense, Wa-shington now hastened 
to New York, where he was certain the next blow 
would be struck, and Lee was ordered to lakecomraand 
of the troops in the South. The fortiticatious which 
Lee had begun were hastily completed. Greene was 
placed in command of a division on Long Island. 
Measures were taken to disarm the Tory inhabitants, 
and the roysil governor, Tryon, was driven to seek 
refuge on board a British man ofwar in the lower bay. 
Tbc Prtiioct 74. Even after the war had fairly begun, the colonies 
of Si-pt-m- gtiu looked forward to a reconeiliaiion with the mother 
"""• country and the lirst i)roposals of a separation were 

received with general disapproval. But the contlict of 
arms, and the obstinate refusals of all overtures on the 
part of Parliament, gave impulse to a bolder i)oUcv. All 
this time the Second Continental Congress was in 
session at Philadelphia, and it agreed to consider 
definitely the question of imlependence. Then it took 
a recess of four weeks, to yive the delegates an oppor- 
tunity to go back to the pei>iile and learn what was the 
general judgment. When the members returned to 
their seats tiiere was no longer any doubt what course 
should be pursued. A committee had been appointed 
to propose a full declaration. The committee was elected 
by ballot, and consisied of Thomas Jefferson. John 
Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and 
Uobcrt R. Livingston. Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Adams 
acted as a subcommittee to prepare the draft, and Mr. 
Tbc Dcclar-Jetlerson drew up the paper. The chief merit of the 
^^'""d"'- I'ocument is his. Some changes were made in it, on 
d"ncc!^° the suggestion of other members of the committee, and 
by others in Congicss while it was under discussion. 
On July 2, 17TC, Congress adopted the resolu- 
tion, "That these United Colonies are, and of right 
ought to be. free and independent states ; that they are 
absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and 
that all political connection between them and the 
State of Great Britain is, and ought to be. totally dis- 
solved." Two days latter Congress adopted the declar- 
ation written by JefEerson. It declared what were the 
natural rights of all men ; it recited the acts of George 
III, King of Great Britain, by which he had abused 
his authority over the colonies, and deprived them of 
tbi ir rights and liberties. It reminded the world how 
patiently the colonies had born their injuries ; of the 
petitions they had addressed to the King, which had 
been disregarded ; how the colonies had appealed, not 
to the King only, but to their brethren, the people of 
England, but that all had been in vain. Therefore, as 
the representatives of the VniUd States of America, in 
general Congress assembled, the delegates published 
this declaration of the independence of the Slates. The 
declaration was received by the people with demon- 
TbeZlii-ct Blralions of joy. Washington caused it to be read to 
ofthcDe- hig soldiers in New Yoik on the 0th of July. On the 

r.XikTni lOil. ^ 'I'll' iill 

same cvcnmg the e.xcited mbabitants pulled down a 
leaden statue of George III on horseback, which stood 
on the Bowling Green, and it was melted into bullets 
for the tise of the patriot army. In all the other parts 
of the country the joy was intense. 
TbcElToct 7,5. The British ministr)- were confounded at what they 
*° ^°Sl»' '^called the daringenormity of the colonists, in spurning the 
royal power and authority. They were surprised that 
rebels dared to show such temper and spirit. Forllvt- 
with they determined by augmented forces to crush 
them at a blow, and to coerce them into a sense of 
duty and submission to their king. Doubling the com- 
petency of their own power to subjugate the colonies, 
the English Parliament, at an immense expense, re- 
sorted to the aid of foreign mercenaries to carry on 
their bloody work. 17,000 troops, hired from the 



clurutioD. 



German States, were conveyed hither to nid in the dub- 
jugation of the colonies. 

76. When the British had failed to get possession of J,!',,-'^""^'' 
South Carolina in the early summer of 177(;, they vor'k!*'' 
turned their attention to New York. The American 

army was inlreiuhed on Long Nl'iiid and 'h'i heights 
overlooking New Y'ork when the British llvel "jntered 
the harborand huxled some of their troops on Sta'en 
Island. Geiural Howe and bis bro'her, Admiral llowe, 
had been appoiiiled coinmissimers te receive the sub- 
mission of any rebels who might throw themselves on 
the king's mercy. Tney had been instructed to pro- 
pose con;lition3 of peace, but they had no authority to 
grant independence, and Washington refusi'd any other 
terms. On the 22d of Auijust lli'; British forces under 
Generals Clinton, Cornwullis, Por'er and Grant, landed 
on the southern shore of Long Island. The larger part of 
the American army was posied in what is now the heart 
of Brooklyn. General Pulnam was in command of 
Long Island, but his army was greatly inferior in num- 
bers and eiiuipments to the enemy. On the morning on 
August 27, Putnam was allacked by ihe iritish and 
compelled to retreat to Brooklyn. Had the British gen- 
eral followed up his advantage, he might have slain or 
captured all of Putnam's force. But at nightfall, under 
cover of the fog. Washington skillfully withdrew all 
the forces on the Brooklyn side and united them with 
the rest of his army in New 'York. He had completely 
foiled the enemy. 

77. It was impossible to bold New Y'ork, bccau.se it Evacoation 
could be shelled from Brooklyn Heights and attacked '.^.f^^^ew 
on both sides bj" the English Heel, so Washington wnh 

drew his forces to Harlem Heights, and fori itied him- 
self there. The British then entered New York, audit 
remained in their hands until the close of the war. 

The condition of the patriots was now deplorable. 
The trmy, greatly reduced by losses in battle, was still 
further weakened by desertions and insubordination. 
Thousands of disheartened soldiers went horn... But 
Washington succeeded in parity establishing discipline, 
and opposed so bold a front to the enemy that Howe 
aid not venture to attack him directly. Lord Corn- 
wallis, however, succeeded in gaining a position on the 
opposite side of the Hudson. Washington was com- 
pelled to withdraw across the river, knowing that the 
enemy would aim for Philadelphia. The two armies 
crossed New Jersey in hot haste, Washington maneu- Operations 
vering so as to defeat the British design of cutting him m New 
off from that city. The armies, while in motion. were''''''*<'y- 
often in sight of each other. Washington continued 
his retreat slowly, followed by the enemy, until early 
in December he crossed the Delaware river near Tren- 
ton. Howe now thought the campaign over, and went 
into winter quarters. 

78. The succession of disasters, beginning with th 
battle of Long Island, greatly discouraged the Ameri- 
cans. The legislatures of Now Jersey and Pennsyl- 
vania adjourned and left the states almost without a 
government. Congress, fearing for its safety in Phila- 
delphia, removed to Baltimore, leaving W'ashington 
with almost dictatorial powers. Apathy and disorder 
prevailed among the troops, many of whom had to 
march with bare, bleeding feet along the frozen roads. 
A great number of prominent persons, believing that 
the cause of independence was lost, hastened to make 
their peace with the British .authorities. It was truly a 
time which "tried men's souls." Amidst the prevail- 
ing gloom, Washington stood firm. Strengthened by 
the arrival of Lee's division, now under command of 
Sullivan, since the capture of Lee by the British, 
NVashington determined to strike a blow that would re- 
vive the drooping courage of the people. He resolved 
to fall upon a detachment of Hessian troops, stationed 
at Trenton under Hhal, and chose Christmas night for 
the attack. Rccrossing the Delaware with '.2.400 men, 

he attacked the town while the Hessians were carons „fTr,.nint! 



UNITED STATES 



ing, and completely routed them, taking one thousand 
prisoners. 

79. This brilliant exploit had a wonderful effect 
upon the people. The soldiers who were about to re- 
turn home consented to serve si.N; months longer; Con- 
gress, which had exhibited great firmness during these 
times of trial, put forth fresh efforts to strengthen the 
army, and Washington, invested for six months with 
the authority of a dictator, crossed the Delaware again 
and occupied Trenton. Cornwallis now advanced to- 
ward that place with all his available forces, and Wash- 
ington's danger was greater than before. But again 
his masterly genius prevailed. Leaving his camp fires 
bi'rning. he abandoned his position, passed silently 
around the enemy, and at sunrise (.January 3, 1T77), 

The Bo'tlefcii upou the British reserves at Princeton, just as they 
toiT"^"'^'^" ""-"''^ starting out to take part in the expected battle at 
Trenton, and routed them. Thus Howe, instead of oc- 
cupying all New Jersey, was cooped up at Brunswick 
and Amboy, and Philadelphia was relieved of further 
danger from Cornwallis. After these splendid suc- 
cesses Washington retired with his army toward Mor- 
ristown, which he made his headquarters, and arranged 
his troops in safe positions between that place and the 
highlands of the Hudson. Here he passed the winter, 
frequently making sudden and daring exploits, without 
risking a general engagement. By this means the en- 
emy was compelled to abandon every post in New Jer- 
sey, except New Brunswick and Perth Amboy. Phila- 
delphia being now in no danger from the British, Con- 
gress returned to that place. 

80. Aware of the importance of inducing the French 
to espouse the American cause, and relying on the en- 
mity of Prance against Great Br' tain. Congress ap- 

Commis- pointed as commissioners to the court of France, Ben- 
eionerssentjamin Franklin, Silas Deane and Arthur Lee. They 
to ranee. ^g,.g instructed to procure arms and ammunition, and 
to obtain permission to fit out American vessels in the 
French ports, to annoy the commerce of England. They 
also directed them to solicit a loan of 10,000,000 francs, 
and to endeavor, by every means in their power to pre- 
vail on the French government to recognize the inde- 
pendence of the United States. The commissioners 
were kindly received and obtained the aid they re- 
quested, although the French government was not will- 
ing, as yet, to recognize the United States as an inde- 
pendent nation. 

81. Commissions were offered to French and other 
foreign officers who wished to serve in the American 
army, and a large number of ambitious soldiers conse- 
quently embarked for America. Washington was em- 
barassed by the arrival of such a large number, not all 
of whom were men of merit. Among the foreigners, 
however, who thus gave their services to the American 
cause were several distinguished officers; Baron de 
Kalb, an Alsatian; Kosciusko and Pulaski, the famous 
Polish patriots; Baron Steuben, an experienced and 
accomplished Prussian soldier, and the young French 
Marquis de La Fayette, who purchased a ship with 
his own means and sailed for America to offer his 
sword, without pay, to the cause of independence. 
' 83. Near the end of May, 1777, the American army, 
numbering about 18,000 men, moved from its winter 
quarters at Morristown and took a position at Middle- 
brook, on which the British left theirencampment, and 
General Howe endeavored to induce General Washing- 
ton to meet him on equal ground. But Washington 
chose to continue his defensive warfare, and not to 
risk an open battle. Finding various feints and at- 
tempts ineffectual, Howe ordered a hasty retreat to 
Stalen Island. He then embarked IG.OOO troops, and 
leaving Sir Henry Clinton in command at New York, 
put to sea, keeping his destination secret. On the 20th 
of August, the fleet entered Chesapeake Bay. intending 
an attack on Philadelphia. Washington hurried to 
Philadelphia by forced marches, and on September 11, 



Fnrei2:il 
Officers. 



<?:inipnie:n 
of 1T77. 



engaged Howe at Brandywine creek. After a hard- 
fought battle the Americans were forced to retreat. 
After some days occupied in maneuvering and skir- 
mishing, on themorningof Ootober4 Washington made 
a sudden attack on Howe's position at Germantown. 
For a while the victory seemed in favor of the Ameri- 
cans, but. owing to a heavy fog, they became confused, 
and the British troops rallied and drove them back with 
heavy loss. After these battles ths British became 
masters of Philadelphia, and Washington took up hi.s 
winter quarters at Valley Forge, about twenty miles 
distant from that city. 

83. While these events were occurring in the middle 
states, in July, 1777, Burgoyne, with an army of Brit- 
ish, Hessians and Indians, entered the states from Can- 
ada, intending to seize the whole line of the Hudson 
river. While on his route he sen t out detachments on both 
sides, one under St. Leger against Fort Schuyler, and 
another under Colonel Baum, to seize the American 
stores collected at Bennington. St. Leger's enterprise 
failed, and Baum was completely routed by the Green 
Mountaia boys at Bennington (August lii). October 
7, Burgoyne was defeated by the Americans under 
Gates, at Bemis Heights, and October 17 was com- 
pelled to surrender at Saratoga. The surrender of Bur- 
goyne proved to be the turning point of the war. It 
gave artillery and arms to the American array, it en- 
couraged the soldiers, and made a great impression in 
Europe. 

84. In the meantime the winter was passing and 
bringing with it severe trials to the American armj' at 
Valley Forge. The men were without shoes, and the 
snow was stained with the marks of their bleeding 
feet. There was no money to pay them. The bills 
issued by Congress had become so depreciated as to be 
almo t worthle.ss. Food was so scarce that Washing- 
ton was authorized to seize provisions wherever he 
could find them. About this time there was a plot to 
compel Washington to resign, and to have Lee or 
Gates put in his place. But the scheme failed, and 
Washington became more popular than ever. In the 
spring of 1778 the condition of affairs improved. 
Robert Morris, of Philadelphia, afforded relief to the 
treasury by raising large sums of money for the gov- 
ernment, on his personal credit, and continued to serve 
the country in this way until the end of the war. 
When the news of Burgoyne's capture reached France, 
she instantly made a treaty of alliance with America 
(February 6, 1778), and sent out a fleet under Count 
d'Estaing to aid the colonies. The news of the treaty 
was received by the Americans with great joy. The 
British Government now sent over commissioners to 
offer terms of peace, giving the Americans all they 
asked for, except independence, but all propositions 
short of that were refused. 

85. General Howe was now instructed to concentrate 
all his forces in New Vork Consequently the British 
suddenly left Philadelphia, and set out on their miirch. 
Washington instantly left Valley Forge, and pursued 
the enemy with 13,000 m.en. He came up wiih them 
at Monmouth where a hotly contested, but indecisive, 
battle was fought. The enemy continued their retreat, 
and were enabled to gain New York. Having failed 
in their designs against New England and the Middle 
States, the British now transferred their operations to 
the South. An expedition was sent by sea and Savan- 
nah, Georgia, was taken at the end of the year 1778. 
Augusta was then occupied, and Georgia was prac- 
tically in the hands, of the British. Thus ended the 
campaign of 1778. General Lincoln received orders 
from Congress to take command of the southern forces, 
and the army under WashingUm retired to winter 
quarters near Middle Brook, New Jersey. 

86. There were no great movements during 1779. 
Washington resolved to make the campaign a defensive 
one. General Clinton, who commanded at New York, 



The Battle 
of the 
Brandy- 
wine. 



The Battle 
of German- 
town. 



B urgoynfi'. 
lnvae=- 



^-tirrenaer 
of Bur- 
goyne. 



Operations 
of 1T7S. 



The Pros- 
pect Fight- 



Treaty of 
Alliance 
with 
France. 



Battle of 
Monmouth. 



The War in 

the South. 



Campaign 
of 1779. 



U N r T E ]:> S T A T K S 



^Vnynt\ 



Bent out an expedition which capturcil the half finished 
fort at Stony Point, situated on the west bank of the 
Iludson river. Washington determined upon its re- 
Mad An- capture, and upon the night of .luly 10, it was carried 
!;""y at the point of the bayonet by the troops under the 

gallant General Wayne, or "Mad Anthony Wayne" as 
he was called. In October, the Americans, aided by 
the French, made an attack on Savannah in order to 
wrest it from the Brilisb. At the end of live hours' 
bard flKbtini;. in which the brave Pulaski was mortally 
wounded, the French refused to continue the attack 
longer, and sailed for the West Indies, whereupon the 
Americans retired to Charleston. This brought the 
southern campaign of 1779 to an end. This year was 
signalized by the victories achieved by the infant navy 
of America, under the command of the intrepid Paul 
Jones, who fought with the " Serapis " one of the 
most desperate naval battles on record (September 2;i). 
OpiTatioDs 87. The seat of the war was now mainly in the 
in ihi' South. The people there were nearly equally divided 
^°"' '■ in allegiance. Savannah, the chief town of Georgia, 
was already in possession of the British, and in May 
Charleston was captured by them. The enemy bad 
now a large army in the field in that quarter. At first 
it was opposed by no united American army. The 
patriotic planters gathered in companies, and rode 
here and there under the leadership of daring men like 
Marion and Sumter. They harassed the British wher- 
ever they could find convenient points of attack. 
Clinton, having gained possession of South Carolina, 
returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis in command. 
Meantime an American force under Baron l)e Kalb, 
had been sent by Washington to the South; but Con- 
gress interfered and put Gates in De Ivalb's place. 
Gates, whose military capacity was much overrated, 
collected together about six thousand men, and 
inarched hiistily toward Camden, in the interior of 
Batilc of South Carolina. Here he was met by the British under 
Canideu. Cornwallis, who inllicted a disgraceful and disastrous 
defeat upon hitM(Augustl6. 1780). Duringthe fight the 
heroic De Kalb lost his life. Gates fled to North 
Carolina, leaving his fugitive soldiers to take care of 
themselves. Soon afterward be was removed from 
command, and Greene appointed in his place. In 
September, 1780, Arnold's treachery against the gov- 
ernment was discovered, and he was compelled to flee 
to the British lines. Major Andre, who had been 
arranging terms with Arnold, was captured on his 
return, tried as a spy, condemned, and executed 
October 2, 1780. Greene being now in command of 
the American troops in the South, showed at once the 
^jualities of a good general, lie secured ailditions to 
the weakened southern army, and began operations 
against Cornwallis. In December, 17sO, Greene was 
at Charlotte, North Carolina, and Cornwallis was in 
South Carolina, moving northward. Greene divided 
his forces in two bodies. Ills plan was to get on each 
side of the British army, and while avoiding a general 
battle, to annoy the enemy continually. Although 
General Greene's men were scantily clad, half starved, 
and dispirited, destitute of arms and ammunition, the 
officers under his command were as brave men as ever 
followed a leader. Morgan, Lee, Marion, Sumter and 
Colonel Washington formed a group to which the 
British army could furnish no parallel. In the course 
of his movements, Cornwallis dispatched Tarleton 
against Morgan, who commanded one of the divisions 
Th« Battle °f Greene's army. They met at Cowpens (.lanuary 17), 
ofCowpens.and after one of the severest confiicts of the war, 
Tarleton was completely defeated, with the loss of 
the greater part of his force, and all his artillery and 
baggage. 

88. Morgan now hastened his march eastward to 
join Greene, and Cornwallis followed in hot pursuit. 
In order to move faster the British burned their stores 
and superfluous baggage, but Morgan succeeded in 



effecting a junction with Greene. Now followed a 
series of masterly movements by Greene, lasting 
through the winter, the spring, and the following 
summer. The hostile forces met at Guilford Court Ouiiford 
House (March 15, 1781). The battle was fought des- \{'Jl^\\, 
perately for two hours, and all the advantages of a " "" 
victory were on the side of the Americans. Notwith- 
standing Cornwallis claimed the victory, he retreated, 
closely pursued by Greene. Cornwallis avoided a 
battle and retreated to Wilmington, and from there 
proceeded to Petersburg, Virginia. Greene moved to 
South Carolina, where he had a fight at Hobkirk's 
Hill (April 25). with a force under lord Uawdon, 
whom Cornwallis had left in command. Here Greene 
was compelled to retreat, but Kawdon's loss was so 
great that he soon after evacuated his main position at 
Camden. During April and May Greene swept 
through the country, carrj-ing the British posts in suc- 
cession, until the enemy were confined to three points, 
Ninety-si.\:, Kutaw Springs and Charleston. 

89. Having rested his army, Greene marched against 
Eutaw Springs, where he found the British forces un- 
der Colonel Stuart (Kawdon having resigned and sailed 
for England) drawn up to receive him. A severe en- 
gagement took place (September 8, 1781), both sides 
claiming the victory. 'This was the last general action 
in South Carolina; the British, abandoning the open 
country, retired to Charleston. Cornwallis arrived in 
Virginia in May, 1781. Having received reinforcements, 
he fortified himself at Yorktown, on the south side of 
York river. Tarleton occupied Glouster Point, opposite 
Yorktown. The British force in Virginia at this time 
was about 8,000 men. 

90. Meanwhile Washington, having been reinforced 
by a lately arrived body of 6,000 French troops, under 
Kochambeau, was threatening New York. About this 
time the French adpiiral, De Grassc, who had been en- 
gaged against the English in the West Indies, came 
north to cooperate a little while with Washington, and 
it was resolved, instead of carrying out on an attack 
upon New York, which had been planned, to strike a 
hard blow at Cornwallis in Virginia. The army of 
Kochambeau marc-hed from Newport to meet Washing- 
ton in the highlands. Their destination was kept 
secret, and the movements of both so artfully contrived 
that Clinton supposed they were going to attack New 
York. He did not discover their object until they had 
reached the Delaware. Sir Henry then sent out an ex- 
pedition under Benedict Arnold to ravage Connecticut, 
hoping thereby to cause Washington to return, but this 
mjineuver did not efl'ect its object. Washington and 
Kochambeau pressed forward with the utmost alacrity. 
They received the gratifying intelligence that De (irasse 
had already arrived with his fleet and had blockaded 
the Chesapeake, thus cutting olT the escape of the Brit- 
ish by water. On Septemlier 30, 1781, the allies in- 
vested Yorktown and Glouster. After a siege of nearly .^iec<! of 
three weeks, Cornwallis, finding it no longer possible to "i^rktown. 
hold Yorktown, surrendered his whole army of nearly 

8,000 men to Washington (October 19, 1781). On that 
day Clinton left New York to join (jornwallis. A week 
later, when off the Virginia cajies, be heard of the news 
of the surrender. It was too late for him to be of any 
service, and he returned to New York. 

91. The surrender of Cornwallis sent a thrill of joy 
through the country, and was the most decisive event 
of the war. The territory of the thirteen states was 
now restored to the jurisdiction of Congress, and the 
contest <lecided in favor of America. The surrenderor 
Cornwallis was accepted both by the Americans and 
the English in Amer'ca as the end of the war. Con- 
gress recommended the states to observe a day of 
thanksgiving to God for the signal success of the Amer- 
ican arms. The people waited impatiently for the two 
governments to agree upon terms of peace. There were 
after this a few encounters between the two armies, but 



UNITED S T A T E ;S 



there was no Reneral battle. The British still haii posses- 
sion of New York harbor and the surroiiudiiig country. 
General Washington went into camp with his army at 
Newburgh, on the Hudson. There he could keep open 
communication betweeen New England anil the rest of 
the country. The French allies remiiined in Virginia. 
Generals Wayne and Greene drove such portions of the 
British forces as remained in the Carolinas and Georgia 
down to the sea-coast, and shut them up in Savannah 
and Charleston. There they were protected by their 
vessels. The people of Great Britain became clamor- 
ous for peace. The obstinate king was still rei:olvtd 
"never to consent to a peace at the expense of a separa- 
tion from America, but a resolution in favor of peace, 
supported by the leading members, passed the House of 
Commons February 27, "1782. The king was compelled 
to dismiss Lord North and accept a ministry headed by 
the Marquis of Rockingham, who was committed to the 
policy of peace, and commissioners were appointed on 
both sides to negotiate a treaty, hostilities being stopped 
in the interval. 
TbeTreiitT 92. Much firmness and wisdom were shown by Messrs. 
of Pe.>icB. ' Jay. Franklin, Adams and Laurens, the American com- 
missioners. Many questions were raised, an important 
one of which was that of boundary, England wishing 
to keep the Ohio valley and part of Maine. Tbe prop- 
erty of the Tories had been confiscated; the English 
wislied it restored. England tried to exclude New En- 
gland from the right to fish off the banks of Newfound- 
land. These and other questions caused delay. The 
delay was increased by the efforts of France and Spain 
to postpone the final settlement until they should get 
all which they demanded as nations from Great Britain. 
The preliminary articles of peace were settled at Paris 
on the 30th of November, 1782, and in September, 1783, 
a formal treaty was signed. By this treaty Great Brit- 
ain acknowledged the independence and sovereignty of 
the United States, and a new nation took its place 
among the governments of the earth. 
Ttie Army 93. The Amt-rican army was now disbanded. During 
disbanUi-d. {jjj. progress of negotiations the temper of the officers 
and soldiers was far from satisfactory. They had 
received but a small portion of their pay, had often 
Buffered from absolute hunger, and were becoming 
restless under their wrongs and neglect. Some of them 
so far forgot themselves as to desire the establishment 
of a military despotism, and Washington received a 
letter in which he was advised to declare himself king 
— a proposition which he indignantlj' refused to enter- 
tain for a single moment. Thcj anonymous letters 
were circulated among the troops in March, 1783, tend- 
ing to inflame their minds and advising them to organ- 
ize for the purpose of enforcing Congress to grant their 
demands. To counteract this movement Washington 
called all the officers together, and in his subsequent 
farewell address soothed them by kind words and 
promises, and appealed to the nobler sentiments of the 
heart. Thus the danger was dispelled, and on Novem- 
ber 3, still glowing with patriotism, the soldiers separ- 
ated, resolved to endure all necessary privations. The 
army certainly had been treated badly by both Con- 
gress and the States, but there was some excuse for their 
conduct in that the country was very poor, and that, 
after spending nearly $100,000,000 during the war, the 
treasury found itself at the end about $40,000,000 in 
debt. This was exclusive of the outlay of the separate 
states, which amounted to $60,000,000 or $70,000,000 
more. 
Evacuation Qq November 25 the British evacuated New York, 
Yor'k"' *°'^' Washington's troops marched in by the way of 
King's Bridge. On November 2 Washington issued his 
farewell address to the army ; on December 4, with a 
heart full of love and gratitude, he bade his officers 
adieu. It was a deeply affecting scene, and men, who 
had braved the horrors of many a battle, now, as they 
approached their beloved commander-in-chief, were 



melted to tears and incapable of utterance. Washing- 
ton then proceeded to Annapolis, at that time the seat 
of Congress, and tendered his resignation as command- Washing- 
er-in-chief of the armies of the United States, and <<"''•' Resig-! 
immediately retired as a private citizen to his home at "^ ' 
Mount Vernon, on the Potomac, in Virginia. 

V. — THE FORMATION OP THE FEDEU.\L CONSTITtJTIOX. 

94. The Slates were governed during the latter part 
of the war by "Articles of Confederation," proposed 
by Congress at the time of the Declaration of Independ- 
ence, but not adopted until several years later. Nearly 
all [lower was vested in the separate states ; Congress 
had but little authority ; there was no president or other 
executive chief. During the war for independence the 
army, which was called the Conlineutal army, was 
under the authority of the Continental Congress, and it 
received its pay, when paid at all, in Continental cur- 
rency. These two words "Continental Currency," 
were placed at the head of the paper money which 
Congress began to issue at the beginning of the war. 
No other way of raising money to meet the military 
expenses seemed clear to Congress than to issue this 
currency, since there would be no revenue from duties, 
as lesoluiions had been passed to have no trade with 
Great Britain. All the colonies represented in Con- 
gress agreed to redeem the bills which should be 
issued, just as each colony had been accustomed to 
redeem its own bills. At tirst the money was found to 
be very useful, and its value was not questioned, as 
nearly everyone thought that the war would soon be 
over. But the war dragged along ; Congress bad been 
obliged to issue bills to the amount of $20,000,000; 
whether or not the colonies would be able to win inde- 
pendence was a matter of doubt ; the country was poor, 
and it was not certain that the Confederation would 
last. Under these circumstances people began to 
refuse to take the money at the value printed upon it. 

95. Under the "Articles of Confederation," adopted ^°''"^°f 
in .1777, the powers of Congress were but small. The o^srets. 
colonies were jealous of each other, and especially the 
smaller of the larger, and so they all wished to give the 

" Confederation," as it was called, just as little power 
as they could. The new government was to be "nerely 
a "firm league of friendship" between sovereign states, 
which were to retain every power not "expressly" 
delegated to Congress. At this time Congress consisted 
of but one house, in which each state had an equal 
vote. There was no national executive head. Congress 
retained the power to borrow money, but was not 
authorized to raise money by taxes, or to fix the rate of 
duties on foreign goods imported, or compel obedience* 
to any law. In fact, the provincial spirit which mani- 
fested itself in the several colonies, so prevailed over 
the spirit of nationality, as to completely take from it 
all power of action, even in the most violent emergen- 
cies, without the express consent of the several prov- 
inces. This was done by the celebrated "Articles of 
Confederation," by which Congress was reduced from 
a prompt and energetic exercise of power, assumed 
and used for the general good, to a mere advisory 
body, which, strictly speaking, had no authority at 
all; for the very tirst article, after that giving title to 
the instrument, made the following declaration: "Each 
state retains its sovereignty, freedom and indepcn- 
dance, and every power, jurisdiction, and right which 
is not by this confederation express/!/ delegated to the 
United States in Congress assembled." Thus Congress 
was bound, hand and foot, by the narrow-minded 
jealousy of the several states. Important measures 
required the votes of nine of the 13 states, and amend- 
ments the votes of all. Congress alone could decide 
upon the needed amount of money, but tbe power 
of collecting the taxes was vcste'i in the states, only. 
Congress could decide disputes lietween the states, but 
it had no power to compel respect or obedience to ita 



U ^' i T E D S T A T E S 



decisions. It alone could maki' treaties wiih foreign 
nations, but no iiulivi«iuiil stute was bound to respect 
those treaties, so far as Congress was concerned. Every 
stale had the power of re,i;ulatinj; its own commerce, 
both foreign and domestic, in trutli. all the acts of 
Congress were simplj- recommendations to the state 
assemblies; and these recommendations were always 
largely debated, oftentimes rejected, and never assented 
to in season to have their best cfTect. Washington 
and the army and the Hevoliilionary cause were thus 
nearly sacrillced by a states-right prejudice, as bad in 
princi|)le as it was .slow and injurious in fact. 

90. When Congress tried to borrow money in Europe, 
it succeded in gelling some at high rates of interest. 
But in the present slate of the country foreigners were 
slow to lend; they were not sure of getting their money 
back again. They knew they would not if the slates 
failed in establishing their independence. And even if 
they did. the question was, would they pay if pc«ce 
came? Under the then existing form of govenunent it 
seemed doubtful. The several stales could raise money 
to meet their obligations by ta.xing their citizens; they 
could also impose duties on articles of trade. The 
government, as vested in Congress, coulil do neither of 
these things; it could only apportion to the several 
states their share of the jiublic expenses. If the states 
refused to pay. Congress had lu) [lower to comiiel them. 
Foreign countries, also, did noi like to make treaties 
with such a loose and feeble government. Washington 
said: "We are one nation to-day. and 13 to-morrow: 
who will treat with us on these terms?" Thus, both 
Congress and the states struggled on, making more 
paper money and borrowing at high rates of interest. 
Laws were passed requiring the people to take the 
paper monej' in payment of debts. But the currency 
became more and more worthless, so that about the 
middle of the war, 16 hundred dollars of it was asked 
for a suit of clothes. After the alliance with France, 
the prospect brightened. People had more confidence 
in the success of the United States, and it became easier 
to borrow money in Europe. About this time, also. 

^•jT' Robert Mt)rris, of Philadelphia, who thoroughly under- 
stood the mistakes which had l)ecn made, was offered 
the position of superintendent of finance. He accepted 
the office only on condition that Congress should aban- 
don the attempt to compel the people by law to take 
the paper money in payment of debts. In 1781 Con- 
gress passed a resolution that it would pay all its debts 
in solid coin, and recommended the states to do the 
same. It chartered the Bank of North America, and 
this bank lent money both to the government and to 
the people. At the close of the war the government 
found itself deeply in debt. Part of this money was 
due to foreigners, and part to the people of the country, 
How this debt was to be paid, was the question to be 
, settled by the Confederation. 

Uni..Topicd ""• ^'"-' way was through the sale of unoccupied lands. 

LaDdi>. When the Confederation was forming there was much 
dispute and uncertainty about the western boundaries 
of the difTerent colonies. Virginia, for example, claimed 
the country now occupied by Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio 
and Illinois. It was proposed that the states should 
give up their western lands to the United States. Vir- 
ginia was the first to do this, and other stales followed 
her example (1T.S4). Congress us(^d this property to pay 
the debts of the govc'rnment. It gave lands to officers 
ami soldiers in payment of their claims. Many of 
thi'se moved out on their lands, and companies were 
formed for colonizing, especially in the Ohio valley. 
Congress could not go much farther. It could say 
what taxes ought to be laid, and could recommend a 
uniforiM late of duties throughout the country; but it 
was obliged to ask the state to lay the taxes, to levy the 
duties, and then to pay the money raised into the 
treasury of Congress. 
98. It perceived that this would never do— that a 



stronger form of government was necessary for the 
welfare and [irosperity of the country. Disorders 
aro.sc within the separate states, and a state of anarchy 
in general prevailed. The western counties of North 
Carolina undertook to form a state of their own, called 
Frankland. The part of Virginia which afterward be- 
came Kentucky, made asimilar attempt. An extensive 
rebellion in Massachussetts, le<l by an ex-captain in the 
Continental army, named Daniel Shays (December, SlinyK' 
ITStiV and directed against the collection of taxes, etc., Kchcliion. 
for six months resisted the ;uitliority of the slate. It 
was Bually put down by a military force uiuler General 
Lincoln. The one act of authority which Congress 
could exercise was in providing for the government of 
the country which had been ceded to it by the states. 
This led to the passage of the important ordinance in Ordniance 
1787. By this ordinance all the district northwest of ""''*"• 
the Ohio was formed into one territory. Congress ap- 
pointed a governiir, a council and judges. The people 
of the terriloiy were allowed to choose their own as- 
sembly and make their own laws, The most important 
provision of the ordinance was that by which slavery 
was forever excluded from the northwest territory. 

99. It was impossible for the country to go on as it 

was. The states were separating from one another. Diflicuities 
and from Congress. Congress could with tli""'"'')' J^y^',','; 
bring enough members together to form a quorum. 
Scarcely any one outside paid attention to what it did. 
Least of all was it respected by foreign governments. 
John Adams.who had been sentas minister to England, 
could hardly get a hearing there. M xny of the states 
refused or neglected to pay even their allotted shares 
of interest on the public debt, and Congress had not 
the power to compel payment. The national credit be- 
came worthless. Foreign nations refused to make 
commercial treaties with the United States, pre- 
ferring rather to tuke advantage of the impotency 
of Congress, and lay any burden upon American 
commerce that they thought fit. In 178,'), Algeria de- 
clared war against the United States. Having no effi- 
cient navy, Congress rccommendeil the building of five 
ships of war, but as it had the power to recommend 
only, the ships were not built, and American commerce 
was left a prey to the Alg<'ritie pirates. Great Britain 
still refused to carry out the treaty of 1783. or send a 
minister to the United States. The federal government 
was despised abroad, and disobeyed at home. 

100. Amidst this discouraging and confused state of 
affairs, the more thought fid of the people saw that 
some change in the form of government was necessary 
and so a convention of delegates was called to meet in 
Independence hall, Philadelphia, May 14, 1787, in order J;',™;^:^,'^"™ 
to decide upon a new constitution, and make, if possi- 
ble, a stronger government, wilhotit doing harm to the 
liberties of the people. The states sent their ablest 

men to represent them. Many of the delegates hac 
been members of the first Congress. Among others. 
Virginia sent Washington, Edmund Randolph. Georg(' 
Mason, Madison and George Wythe; New York, Ham- 
ilton; Massachuselts, Kufus King, Strong and Gerry; 
Pennsylvania, Franklin, Itobert Morris, Gouverneur 
Morris and -lames Wilson; New .Jersey, Paterson; Con- 
necticut, Sherman, William S. .Johnson and Ellsworth; 
and South Carolina, Kulledge and the two Pinckneys. 
Washington was appointed president of the convention. 

101. There was great difference of opinion among the 
delegates regarding the question at issue, but all agreed 
that it was necessary to give the government greater 
authority. After a long discussion, lasting man}' 
weeks, the convention drew up a conslilui'on of the T'"' f™' 
United States (September 17, 1787) which was to take ''^"°"°°- 
the place of the articles of confederation. The con- 
vention reported its work to Congress, and Congress 
submitted it to the several states. By the terms of the 
constitution, it must be ratified by nine states before it 

could become the law of the land. Much opposition 



UNITED STATES 



was manifested toward its adoption. It was discussed 
everywhere, and its every article was earnestly debated. 
Hamilton, Madison and John Jay of New York pub- 
lished a celebrated series of papers called The Feder- 
alist, in which they went over all its features with great 
thoroughness, showing the reasons for the action of 
the convention. By this means they did much to con- 
vince the people of the importance of the work done. 
Delaware was the first to ratify the constitution, which 
it did unanimously. Pennsylvania followed, ten days 
afterward, with a two- thirds vote in favor. Eight 
other states also ratified it, so that it went info effect in 
1788. Of the three states which remained. New York 
accepted the constitution in time to take part in the 
first pres'dential election that same year. North Car- 
olina accepted it during the year following; and Rhode 
Island, last of all, in the year after that (1790). Thus 
the old " Confederation" came to an end and the new 
The Union. " Union " began. 

103. The opening words of the constitution are as 
follows: " We, the people of the United States, in order 
to form a more perfect union, established justice, insure 
domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, 
promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings 
of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and 
establish this constitution for the United States of 

The Pream- America." This first sentence of the constitution is 
''''■■ often called the preatnble, but no such term was applied 

to it by the framers of the constitution, neither is it 
found in the original manuscript. It is not a preamble 
in any sense, but is the enacting clause — an integral 
part of the constitution, staling that it was the people 
of the whole United States who established it. A pre- 
amble gives reasons why a resolution should be adopted 
or enacted, but it is no pait of the resolution or enact- 
ment. The enacting clause, on the contrary, is man- 
datory. No other part of a statute is more important. 
Thus, this introductory sentence gives the authority 
and the ends for which the constitution was made. It 
was ordained by the people of the United States as a 
nation, and for the purposes so admirably set forth in 
its opening clause; and wherever in the constitution the 
words "United States" occur they signify the nation 
as a whole; wherever the word "States" occurs, it 
denotes the states considered separately, or as distin- 
guished from tbs nation. 
Articles 103. The constitution contains seven articles, which 

of the Con- J^re subdivided into sections. Besides these seven ar- 
6ti u ion. ijpjgg^ fifteen amendments have been made to the con- 
stitution, which are as binding as the original articles. 
By the first article all legislative power is vested in the 
Congress of the United States, which consists of a senate 
and house of representatives. Under the confederation 
the whole governmental authority was vested in Con- 
gress. There was no executive department and no judi- 
■ cial. The first resolution adopted in the constitutional 
convention stated that a national government ought to 
be formed, consisting of supreme legislative, executive 
and judicial departments. Most legislative bodies have 
two houses. This is true of all the existing state gov- 
ernments, and was true of all the states at the time the 
constitution was framed, except Pennsylvania and 
(Jeorgia, which had but one each. The Continental 
<Jongres3 had but one house. While there is a general 
distribution of powers among the three great depart- 
ments of government, the exercise of these powers is 
not absolutely exclusive. 

104. The federal house of representatives is descend- 
ed, through the state houses of representatives, from 
the colonial assemblies. It is an assembly represent- 
ing the whole population of the country as if the peo- 

The House pie were all in one great state. It is composed of roem- 

of Repre- bers chosen every year by the people of the states. A 

eentatives. candidate for election to the house must be at least 

twenty-five years old. must have been seven years a 

citizen of the United States, and must be an inhabitant 



of the state in which he is chosen. As the federal 
Congress is a taxing body, representatives and taxes are 
apportioned among the several states according to the 
same rule, that is, according to population. At this 
point a difficulty arose in the convention as to whether 
slaves should be counted as population. If they were 
to be counted, the power of the slave states in all mat- 
ters of national legislation would be greatly increased. 
The difficulty was adjusted by a compromise measure -pi^^ .j-[j^j,^. 
according to which five slaves were to be reckoned as Fifths 
three persons. Since the abolition of slavery this pro- ("ompro- 
vision has become obsolete, but until 1860 it was a very ""**■ 
important factor in American history. 

10.5. In the federal house of representatives the great 
states, of course, have much more weight than the small- 
er ones. In 1790 the four largest states had 33 repre- 
sentatives, while the other nine had only 33. The larg- 
est state, Virginia, had ten representatives, to one fror 
Delaware. These disparities have increased. In 1880, 
out of thirty-eight states, the nine largest had a majority 
of the house, and the largest state, New York, had 34 
representatives to one from Delaware. This feature in 
the house of representatives caused the smaller states 
in the convention to oppose the whole scheine of con- 
structing a new government. They were determined 
that all the states, both great and small, should have 
equal representation in Congress. Their prolonged op- 
position threatened to ruin the whole plan, when a 
method of eonipromise was fortunately discovered. It 
was intended that the national legislature, in imitation 
of the state legislatures, should have an upper house or 
senate, and at first the advocates of a strong national 
government projiosed that the senate also should repre- 
sent population. But it happened that iu the state of Con- The Con- 
necticut a unique governmental method had been adopt- nt'^'t'cn' 
ed. There it had always been the custom to elect the gov- nUsef"^" 
ernor and upper house by a majority vote of the whole 
people, while for each township there was an equality 
of representation in the lower house. The Connecticut 
delegates in the convention, therefore, being familiar 
with a legislature in which the two houses were elected 
on different principles, suggested a compronaise. Let 
the house of representatives, they said, represent the 
people, and let the senate represent the states; let all 
the states, great and small, be equally represented in 
the senate. Such was the famous "Connecticut Com- 
promise." Had this not been adopted the convention 
would doubtless have broken up without accomplish- 
ing its purpose. After it was accepted, and the jealous 
fears of the smaller states allayed, the work, yet to be 
accomplished, was comparatively easy. 

106. Thus it came about that the upper house of the The Senate, 
national legislature is composed of two senators from 

each state. As they represent the state, they are 
chosen by its legislature and not by the people. They 
are chosen for a term of six years, and one-third of the 
number of terms expire every second year, so that, 
while the whole senate may be renewed by the lapse of 
six years, there is never a "new senate." The senate 
has thus a continuous existence and a permanent or- 
ganization, whereas each house of representatives ex- 
pires at the end of a two-years' term, which is usually 
known as a "congress," and is succeeded by a "new 
house." A candidate for the senatorship must be at 
least thirty years of age, must have been nine years a 
citizen of the Unit.ed States and must be an inhabitant 
of the state which he represents. 

107. Congress must assemble at least once in every Time of 
year, and the constitution appoints the first Monday in Assembling 
December for the time of meeting; but Congress can, 

if necessary, enact a law changing the time. The es- 
tablished custom is to hold the election for representa- 
tives upon the same day as the election for president — 
the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. As 
the period of the new administration does not begin 
until the fourth day of the following March, the new 



UNITED STATES 



Prlvileees 
or mem* 

bers. 



Presiding 
offlcert>. 



Power of 
impeucb- 
mcnt. 



The presi- 
dent's veto 
power. 



house of representatives docs not assemble until the 
December following that date, unless the new president 
should think it necessary to call an extra session of 
Congress at an earlier date. Each house is judge of 
the elections, qualifications and returns of its own 
members, determines its own rides of procedure aiul 
may punish its members for disorderly behavior, or by 
a two thirds votee.\|>el a member. Absent members 
may be compelled under penalties to attend. Each 
house is rei|uired to keep a journal of its proceedings, 
and at proper intervals to publish it, except such parts 
as for reasons of public policy should bo kept secret, 

108. Senators and representali\'cs receive a fi.xed sal- 
ary by law, which is paid out of the public treasury. 
In all ca.ses, except treason or felony or breach of the 
peace, they arc privileged from arrest during their at- 
tendance in Congress, as also while on their way to it 
and while returning home; "and for any speech or de- 
bate in either house they shall not be ciuestioncd in any 
other place." During the session (»f Congress neither 
house may, without the consent of the other, adjourn 
for more than three days, or to any other place than 
that in which Congress is sitting. No person can at 
the same lime hold any civil olHce under the United 
Stales government and be a member of either house of 
Congress. 

109. The vice-president is the presiding officer in the 
senate, with power to vote only in case of a tie. The 
house of representatives electa its presiding officer, 
who is called the Speaker. In the early history of the 
House of Commons, in England, its presiding officer 
was naturally enough Uasjio/.-csmaii. He could speak 
for it in addressing the crown. Instances of this kind 
occurred during the fourteenth century, until in i:i76 
the title of Speaker was definitely given to Sir Thomas 
Uungerford, and from that date the title has always 
held. The same title was given to the presiding officers 
of the American colonial assemblies, and thence it 
passed on to the state and federal legislatures. The 
Speaker presides over the debates, puts the questions 
and decides points of order. Ue also appoints the 
committees of the house of representatives. 

110. The house of representatives has the sole 
power of impeachment, and the senate has the sole 
power to try all impeachments. When the president 
of the United States is tried, the chief justice of the 
supreme court must preside. Ai' i precaution against 
Ihe use of impeachment for party purposes, a two- 
thiids vote is required for conviction. In case of con- 
viction the judgment cannot extend further than "to 
removal from office, and disqualification to hold or 
enjoy any office of "honor, trust or profit under the 
United Slates;" but the person convicted is liable af- 
terward to be tried and punished by the ordinary pro- 
cess of law, 

111. The constitutional provisions for legislation are 
admirably simple. All bills for raising revenue must 
originate in the lower house, but the upper house may 
propose or concur with amendments as in the case of 
other bills. After a bill has passed both houses, it must 
go to the president for his approval. If he approves 
it, he signs it, and it becomes a law. If he disapproves 
it, he returns it to the house in which it originated, 
with a written statement of his objections, which must 
be entered in full upon the journal of the house. The 
bill is then reconsidered, and if it obtains a two thirds 
vote it is sent, together with theohjections, to the other 
house. If it passes there by a two-thirds vote, it 
becomes a law. Otherwise it fails. If the president 
keeps a bill longer than ten daj's (Sundays excepted) 
without signing it, it becomes a law without his signa- 
ture, unless Congress adjourns before the expiration 
of the ten daj-s, in which case it fails to become a law, 
just as if it had been vetoed. This method of vetoing 
bills just before the expiration of Congress, by keeping 
it in one's pocket, so to speak, was styled a " pocket 



veto," and was first employed by President Jackson in 
1829. 

112. By the constitution. Congress has the power 
" to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, 
to pay the debts and provide for the common defense 
and general welfare of the United States," but all 
duties, etc., were to be uniform throughout the United 
States. Other powers are naturally attached to this — 
such as the power to borrow money on the credit of 
the United States ; to regulate foreign and domestic 
commerce ; to coin money and fix the standard of 
weights and measures ; to provide for the punishment 
of counterfeiters ; to establish post-offices and post- 
roads ; to issue copyrights and patents ; to estalilish 
courts inferior to the supreme court ; to punish 
offenses committed on the high seas, or against the law 
of nations ; to declare war, grant letters of marque and 
reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land 
and water ; to raise and support an army and navy (no 
appropriation to be for more than two years), and to 
make rules for the regulation of the land and naval 
forces ; to provide for calling out the militia to suppress 
insurrections and repel invasions, and to command the 
militia while actually employed in the service of the 
United States. The several states, however, were to 
train their own militia and appoint the officers. Con- 
gress may also establish a uniform rule of naturaliza- 
tion, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, 
but it has not yet done so. It was also empowered to 
establish a national capital or federal district (which is 
the District of Columbia, containing the city of Wash- 
ington), to exercise exclusive control over it, and over 
forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards and other need- 
ful buildings, which it erects within the several slates 
upon lands purchased for such purposes with the con- 
sent of the state legislature ; and finally. " to make all 
laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into execution the foregoing powers and all other 
powers vested by this coustitiition in the government 
of the United Stales, or in any department or office 
thereof." This last clause may be called the elastic 
clause of the constitution. It has been the subject of 
continued debate, and has undergone a great deal of 
stretching for one purpose and another. It was a pro- 
found disagreement in the interpretation of this clause 
which, after 1789, divided the American people into two 
great political parties. 

113. The national authority of Congress is further 
sharply defined by the express denial of sundry powers 
to the several states. The states are expressly forbid- 
den to impose any duties on imports or exports, except 
for inspection charges, which must be passed over to 
the treasury of the United States; to make treaties of 
any kind ; to lay any duty on tonnage ; to keep troops 
or ships of war in time of peace ; to engage in war 
unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as 
will admit of no delay ; to grant letters of marque and 
reprisal ; to coin money ; to emit bills of credit ; to 
make anything but silver a legal tender; to pass any 
bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the 
obligation of contracts, or to grant any title of nobility. 

114. Some express prohibitions were laiii upon the 
National Covcrnment. Duties may be laid upon im- 
ports, but not upon exports. Duties and excises must 
be uniform throughout the country, and no commercial 
preference can be shown one state over another. The pri- 
vilege of the writ of /iii/niis corpux cannot be suspended 
except "when.incasesof rebellion or invasion, the public 
safety may require it." A census must be taken every 
10 years in order to adjust representation, and no direct 
tax can be impo.sed except according to the census. 
No bill of attainder, or ex po.tt facto law can be passed. 
A bill of attainder is a special legislative act by which 
a person maybe condemned to death, or to outlawry 
and banishment, without the opportunity of defending 
himself, to which he is entitled in a court of law. 



POWI'-P 

prauted to 
Congrcee. 



Tlie 

"Elastic 

Clau.se.'' 



Powers 
denied to 
the States. 



Prohibi- 
lioni' laid 
upon 
Congress. 



Bills or 
attainder. 



UNITED STATES 



C^niilifica- 
tioiis for 
the presi- 
deucy. 



Powerp 
jind duties 
of the 
president. 



The 

Pr.-!jident 

message. 



Executive 
depart- 

lUI'DtS. 



Tlic Secrc' 
tary of 
State. 



Congresa can grant no title of nobility, and no federal 
officer can accept a present, office, or title from a 
foreign state without the cousenl of Congress. "No 
religious test shall ever be required as a qtialitioation to 
any office or public trust under the United States." 
Money is to be taken from the treasury only in con- 
sequence of appropriations made by law. 

115. No one is eligible to the office of president un- 
less be is a native born citizen. The candidate must 
be at least 35 yeais old. and must have been 14 years a 
resident of the United States. The president's term of 
office is four years. The constitution says nothing 
about his re-election, and there is no written law for- 
bidding his being re-elected many times. Some of the 
presidents have served two consecutive terms, and it 
seems to have become the established custom not to go 
beyond that. The president is solemnly ^worn to 
execute his office faithfully, and "to preserve, protect, 
and defend the Constitution of the United States " to 
the best of his ability. In case of his death, resigna- 
tion, or inability to perform the duties of his office, the 
•vice-president takes his place; and, in the case of the 
inability of both, the members of the cabinet succeed 
in the order prescribed in the Presidential Succession 
Act of 1886. The president is commander-in-chief of 
the military and naval forces of the United States, and 
of the militia in the several states actually engaged in 
the service of the United States; and he has the pre- 
rogative of granting reprieves and pardons for offences 
against the United States, e.xcept in cases of impeach- 
ment. He can make treaties with foreign powers; but 
no treaty is valid unless confirmed by a two-thirds 
vote of the senate. He appoints ministers to foreign 
countries, consuls, and the greater officers, such as the 
heads of e.xecutive departments and judges of the 
supreme court, and all other officers whose appoint- 
ment Congress has not vested in other officers; but 
all presidental appointments are to be confirmed by 
the Senate. When vacancies occur during the recess 
of the senate, he may fill them by granting commis- 
sions to expire at the end of the next session. He 
commissions all federal officers. He receives all 
foreign ministers. He may summon either or both 
houses of Congress to an extra session, and if the two 
houses disagree in regard to the time of adjournment, 
he may adjourn them to such a time as he thinks best, 
but of course, not beyond the time fixed for the begin- 
ning of the next regular session. The president must 
from time to time make a report to Congress ou the 
state of affairs in the country, and suggest such a line 
of policy or such special measures as may seem proper 
to him. This report has taken the form of an annual 
written message. He may also call upcni the heads of 
departments for an opinion, in writing, on any subject 
relating to such department. The president is paid by 
the United States, and his salary is not to be increased 
or diminished by Congress during his term of office. 
The act authorizing any increase must apply only to 
the successors of the president who signs the act. 

116. The constitution made no express provision for 
the crealiira of executive departments, but left the 
matter to Congress. At th(' beginning of Washington's 
administration three departments were created — those 
of state, treasury and war, and an attorney general was 
appointed. Since then the number of departments has 
been increased, until now (1890) there are eight; those 
of state, of the treasury, of war. of the navy, of the 
post-office, of the interior, of justice, and of agriculture. 
Tbe chief officer of eachdepartment is called its secretary. 
The secretaries of these departments are the president's 
advisers, and constitute his cabinet. They are selected 
by the president and are confirmed by the senate, but 
are responsible to no one but the president. 

117. The secretary of state ranks first among the 
cabinet officers. He is the minister of foreign affairs, 
anil is the only officer who is authorized to communicate 



with other governments in the name of the president. 
He is at the head of the diplomatic and consular service, 
issuing instructions to the United States ministers 
abroad, and taking a leading part in the negotiation of 
treaties. He keeps the national archives, and superin- 
tends the publication of laws, treaties and proclama- 
tions, and he is the keeper of the great seal of the 
United States. The cabinet officer next in rank is the 
secretary of the treasury. He conducts the financial Secretary 
business of the country, superintends the collection of j^gagnpy^ 
revenue, and gives warrants for the payment of moneys 
out of the treasury. He also superintends the coinage, i 

the national banks, the custom-houses, the coast-survey 
and lighthouse system, the marine hospitals, and life- 
saving service. He sends reports to Congress, and sug- 
gests such measures as seem good to him. He is aided 
by two assistant secretaries, six auilitors, a register, a 
comptroller, a solicitor, a director of the mint, com- 
missioner of internal revenue, chiefs of the bureau of 
statistics and bureau of printing and engraving, etc. 

118. The war and navy departments need no special '^^ar^nd 
description here. The war department is divided into°*^*' 
ten bureaus, among which is the weather bureau, pre- 

siiled over by the chief signal officer. The navy de- 
partment consists of eight bureaus, and among its many 
duties it has charge of the naval observator) at Wash- 
ington, and publishes the nautical almanac. The ile- 
partment of the interior is divided into eight bureaus mem'^of 
It deals with public lands, pensions, patents, Indian the Interior, 
affairs, education, public documents, and the cei sus. 
The postmaster-general's department has to do with postmaster 
the postal affairs of the country. The attorney -gen General and 
eral's department was organized in 1870 into the depart- Atiorney- 
ment of justice. The attorney-general is the president's 
legal adviser, and represents the United States in all 
l;xw suits to which the United States is a party. The 
agricultural department, which was created in 1889. Agricnlt- 
superintends the agricultural interests of the country, ural De- 

119. The best method of electing the president was P^"''™™'- 
a question which perplexed the constitutional conven- 
tion as nuich as any o'her. To submit the election of 

an ofii'^'er so exalteil to the popular vote, was regarded 
with general di-^trust. At one time the convention de- 
cided to have the president elected by Congress, but 
there was a grave objection to this; it would be likely 
to destroy his independence and make him the mere 
creature of Congress. At last the plan of an electoral The 
college was devioed. Each state is eutiiled to a num- E^^[^t|jal 
ber of electors equal to the number of its representa- 
tives and senators together; and the electors choose the 
president and vice-president, meeting at their state cap- 
itals for that purpose, and sending separate certificates 
of their choice of president and vice-president to the 
presiding officer of the Senate at Washington. No fed- 
eral senator or rei>resentative, or any person holding 
civil office under the United States, can serve as an 
elector. Each state may appoint or choose its electors 
in such a manner as it sees fit; at first, they were more 
often than otherwise chosen by the legislatures; now 
tliey are always elected by the people. The day of 
election must be the same in all the states. By act of 
Congress the electors are to be chosen on the Tuesday 
after the first Monday in November. 

V20. It was the original intention that the electors Powers of 
should be left free to make their own choice, and there electors, 
are instances in early years of electors of one party 
voting for personal friends of the opposite party. At 
first the electoral votes did not state whether the candi- 
dates named in them were candidates for the presi- 
dency or vice presidency. Each elector simply wrote 
down two names, only one of which could be the name 
of a citizen of his own state. In the official count, the 
candidate who had the hiyhest number of votes, pro- 
vided they were a majority of the whole number, was 
declared president, and the next highest became vice- 
president. The natural result of this was seen in the 



TJ .\ 1. 'V K I ) S '[' A '[' !•: S 



■fh- 

utnciid- 
nit'ill. 



first contested olt'Ction in ITOli, which jjiive the pre>i- 
ileiif y to Jolin Adams, while his antagonist. Thomas 
Jefferson, became vice-president. In I'^OO. Jellersou 
an<l his colleague Burr received exactly the sam.; num- 
ber of electoral votes. This threw the election into the 
house of representatives, and such intrigues followed 
for ihe purpose of defeating Jefferson that the country 
wa^ ihreatined with civil war. This necessitated a 
ch:in-i^ in the method of election. In IsiOl. llie twelfth 
ameiulmeut was adopted.- The method by this amend- 
ment was changed so that the electors make scpa- 
ratu ballots for president and vice-president. In the 
official count the votes for the president are lirst counted. 
If no candidate has a majority then the house of rep- 
resentatives mu-^t immediately choose the president 
from the three names highest on the list. In this choice 
the house votes by states, each state having one vole; 
a ((iiiirum for this purjiose must consist of at least one 
meml)er from two-thirds of the states, and a majority 
of all the states is necessary for a choice. Then if no 
candidate for the vice-presidency has a majority, the 
senate makes its choice from the two names highest on 
the list. A quorum for the purpose consists of two- 
thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority 
of the whole number is necessary to a choice. 

121. In 1877 an unforeseen difficulty arose, and one 
for which no provision had been made. During the 
presidential contest between Tilden ami Hayes, South 
Caroliiui. Florida and Louisiana had each set up rival 
governments. Ballots for Tilden and ballots for Hayes 
were sent in at the same time by the two hostile sets of 
electors in each of these states, each list being certified 
by one of the two rival governors in the same state. In 
the absence of any recognized means of deciding which 
ballots to count, the two parties in Congress submitted 
the result to arbitration. An "electoral commission" 
was created for the occasion, consisting of five sena- 
tors, five representatives and five judges of the supreme 
court. By this expedient, a clumsy one perhaps, the 
difficulty was tided over. The question of conllicting 
returns has at length been set at rest by the act of 1887. 
which provides tliat no electoral votes can be rejected 
in counting, except by the joint action of both houses 
of Congress. 

122. The judiciary is the third of the three great de- 
partments of the general government. The constitu- 
tion itself provides for one supreme court, but leaves to 
Congress to determine how many inferior courts should 
be established. The organization of the supreme court 
is also left to Congress. Tne chief reason why a na- 

Xcoil for a tional judiciary is necessary in ad<lition to the stale sys- 
tems is that the state judges might be biased in favor 
of their own state. Laws of Congress often bear with 
greater hardship on some slates than others, and pub- 
lic opini<m in those states upon whom the burden lay, 
might be so strong in opposition, that no juilge elected 
and supported by those Jieople would sustain it. But 
if the jmlge belonged to a national system, and thus 
represented and was supported by the wliole nation, he 
would have nothing to fear, and thus his decision would 
be more impartial. The e.vperience of the confedera- 
tion tauglit this. The national jiidiciary consists of 
three grades of courts: The supreme court, the circuit 
courl.s and the district cimrts. The supreme court is 
the highest in the land, ar.d was established by the 
constitution itself. The others were established by 
C' ingress. The supreme court consists at present of a 
chief justice and eight associate justices, and its juris- 
diction is almost wholly appellate; that is, cases are not 
tried in it, but it only hears appeals from other cour's, 
and that only in the most important cases. It has orig- 
inal jurisdiction in a few cases. Of the circuit courts 
there are nine in Ihe country. Kach of the nine judges 
of the supreme court is also presiding judge of a cir- 
cuit court. The area of the United States, not includ- 
ing the territories, is divided into nine (-ircuils, and in 



The 

etei-torrt] 
coTninitf- 
sioii. 



federal 

jadiciury- 



Courts 



each circuit the presiding judge is assisted by special 
circuit judges. The circuits are divided into fifty six 
districts and in each of these there is a special district 
iudge. The districts never cross state lines. They 
cover each a state or a part of 'i «tate. 

123. By the constitution, the judges hold office dur- 
ing good behavior. In no other depr-rtmenl of the gen- 
eral government are offices held for so long a term. 
The purpose is to ipsure a correct and impartial admin- 
istration of justice by making the judges independent 
of ccniflicting parties. The object of the framers of the 
constitution was to remove them as farais possible from 
undue political infiuenccs. As with the president, so 
in this case. Congress, though it fixes the salaries of 
the judges, cannot diminish them while in ollit^e. The 
jurisdiction of tlu^ federal courts does not extend to all 
kinds of cases, but only to su-h as the constitution 
specifies. The cases enumerated in the constitution in 
which the national courts have jurisdiction may be di- 
vided into three general classes, (1; those arising imder 
the constitution, the laws of Congress and treaties, (2) 
those affecting foreigners, and (8) those between differ- 
ent states or the citizens of different states. Cases 
which arise under the constitulinti, laws or treaties of 
the United Slates may be those where a person ;s given 
a right by the constitution, etc., which he does not have 
by tile laws of his state, as for instance a right to sue 
an infringer of a patent granted to him, or where he 
violates a law of Coii.gress or treaty, as counterfeiting 
coin, or doing anything forbidden by a treaty, or where 
any question arises as to the meaning of the constitu- 
tion, laws or treaties of the United States, Dr as to 
whether a law of Congress is constitutional or not. In 
these cases it makes no difference whether the jiarties 
are citizens of the same state or not. The jurisdiction is 
given to the national judiciary for two reasons: First, 
in order that in the interpretation and enforcement of 
its own laws, it may not be dependent on the states; 
and second, in order that the interpretation may be 
uniform throughout the country. 

124. In cases affecting foreigners, the decision prop- 
erly belongs to the federal courts, for the reason that if 
a foreigner is injured here, the nation, and not the 
state, is ri'sponsilile to the foreigner's government; 
therefore the nation, and not the state, should make 
redress for the injury And where the foreigner is an 
ambassador, or other minister, the supreme court has 
original jurisdiction in the case. Admiralty jurisdic- 
tion is also given to the federal courts, for the reason 
that many admiralty cases affect foreigners. Another 
reason is, that ailiniralty is a part'of the regulation of 
commerce, which is a subject taken away from the 
states and given entirelj' to the United Slates. 

125. The third class of cases in which the federal 
courts have jurisdiction, is where the parties on the 
two sides, plaintiff and defendant, are either two dif- 
ferent states, orcitiz.'ns of dilTerenl states. The federal 
courts are to decide coutroveri ics between two or more 
states; because, domestic tranciuility requires that the 
contention of states should be peacefully terminated by 
a common judicatory and becaus(', in a free country, 
just ice ought not to depend on the will of either of the lit- 
igants, fl'hey ire to decide controversies betwei-n a state 
and the citizensof another state; because,in case a state 
(which comprehends all its citizens) has demand,^ 
against some citizens of another state, it is better that 
siic : liould prosecute their demands in a federal court 
than in a court of the state to wliieli those citizens be- 
long, the danger of irritation and criminations arising 
from apprehensions and suspicions of partiality being 
tiiereby obviated. They are to decide controversies 
between citizensof the same state claiming lands under 
grants of different stales; because, as the rights of the 
two stales to grant the land are drawn into (piestion, 
neither of the two slates ought to decide the contro- 
vers}-. 



T. nil re of 

oltiei'. 



Salnry. 

liiliral 

jiinsdic- 
lioi). 



(_'ii>^fs under 
Initi'd 
Sl»t«.-s laws. 



utTeclinir 
[oreij^iers* 



CllSJB 

nll<'cting 
differi-nt 
Slates or 
iiK'ir 
I'ilizens. 



UNITED STATES 



126. The judicial power of the United States extends 
to all cases of law and equity arising under the consti- 
tution and laws thereof, and to treaties made under 
their authority. But there are two kinds of jurisdic- 

Original tion, original and appellate. Original jurisdiction is 
"ru'^ims- jurisdiction of a cause from its beginning. If a party 
ifii'tiu'rl.' can begin his suit in the circuit court, for instance, 
then that court has original jurisdiction in the case. 
If he cannot bring his case into the circuit court until 
it has been tried in some lower court, then the circuit 
court is said to have appellate jurisdiction. Appeal 
lies from the district court to the circuit court when 
the matter involved is of a value greater than $.500, and 
from the circuit court to the supreme court when $5,000 
or more is involved. 

127. No direct suit can be brought against the United 
States either by a citizen or a state, without the author- 
ity of an act of Congress. But in 18.55 Congress estab- 

Coartof lished a court, called the court of claims, in which 
tiaims. jjj^j,g having claims against the United States, may 
bring a suit in the ordinary way. The demand is pre- 
sented to the court by petition. setting forth specifically 
its origin and nature, and the party is allowed to prove 
it by the same rules of evidence which are usually 
adopted in a court of justice. If a claim is established 
Congress makes provision for its payment. An attor- 
ney, called the solicitor of the United States, appears 
before this court in behalf of the government. 
Treason. 138. In the constitution, treason is made to consist 
only in levying war against the nation, or in adhering 
to its enemies, giving them aid and comfort. The 
purpose was to make the meaning as definite as possi 
ble, so that all opportunity for constructive treason 
might be removed. It has been decided by the court 
that there must be an actual levying of war; that a con- 
spiracy to subvert the government by force is not trea- 
son. But if war be actually levied, that is, if a body of 
men be actually assembled for the purpose of effecting 
by force a treasonable purpose, all those who perform 
any part, however minute, or however remote from the 
scene of action, and who are actually leagued in the 
general conspiracy, are to be considered as traitors. 
Conviction of treason requires the testimony of two 
witnesses to the same overt act of treason, or a confes- 
sion in open court. A private confession passes for 
nothing. To Congre-ss is given the power to declare 
the punishment of treason, "but no attainder of trea- 
son is to work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, ex- 
cept during the life of the person attainted." The 
attainder spoken of in this clause must be that con- 
nected with the judgment pronounced by a court, and 
not a legislative attainder, for we have already seen 
that Congress is forbidden, as also the states, from 
passing any bill of attainder. Congress might provide 
for a judicial attainder in the case of treason, but the 
the effects of this attainder must be limited to the life 
of the offender. 

As treason is a crime against sovereig'nty, a violation 
of one's allegiance, there can be no treason against a 
particular state. The states, however, have always as- 
serted their power to punish for treason against them 
individually. It has never been fully maiutained in 
practice; but the theory had its effect iu the secession 
period. If a state, by its courts, punishes treason, it 
must not be as treason against itself, but as treason 
against the union; and in this view, the propriety of 
that state legislation which aflixes to it particular pen- 
alties, is doubtful. 

129. Article IV of the constitution contains a number 

of important provisions, most of which affect the rela- 

S"s°tateT '■'0°s o*" ^^'^ states to each other, and to the general 

government. The first one is in regard to the effect 

which the laws, records and judgments of our state 

shall have in another, and the provision is that they 

PriTileees ^'^^" ^^^'^ '^"'^ effect everywhere. No state can grant 

of ciiizens. privileges to its own citizens.from which the citizens of 



other states are excluded. There must be an equality 
of citizenship every wljere. Without such a provision, 
any state might deny to citizens of other states the 
right to buy and hold real estate, or to become voters 
after living in the state the prescribed time, or to enjoy 
equal privileges in trade or business. The subject of Fngitive 
delivering up fugitives from justice, is one which '■'■™'°"''- 
among different nations, has involved some doubts. 
The constitution of the United States, however, pro- 
vides that they shall always be given up to those who. 
in the stales, have a right to require it. By the com '''ugitive 
mon law, a slave escaping into a non-slaveholdiug state "'' "' 
became free. But the constitution provided that fugi- 
tive slaves were to be surrendered to their owners. 
Escaped slaves were, under this provision, returned to 
the south up to 1861. The clause is of course obsolete 
now. 

130. The constitution provides for the admission of New 
new states to the union, but it does not allow a st:ite States, 
to be formed within another state. A state cannot "be 
formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts 

of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the 
states concerned, as well as of the Congress." Shortly 
before the making of the constitution, the United 
States had been endowed for the first time with a pub- 
lic domain. The territory northwest of the Ohio river The 
had been claimed, on the strength of old grants and Northwest 
charters, by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York Territory, 
and Virginia. In 1777 Maryland refused to sign the 
Articles of Confederation until these states should 
agree to cede their claims to the United States, and 
thus, in 1784, the Federal government came into pos- 
session of a magnificent territory, out of which five 
great states — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois. Michigan and 
Wisconsin — have since been made. While the Federal 
convention was sitting at Philadelphia the Continental 
Congress at New York was doing almost its last, and 
one of its greatest pieces of, work in framing the ordi- 
nance of 1787 for the organization and government of 
this newly acquired territory. 

131. Iu 1803 the vast territory of Louisiana, compris- 
ing everything (except Texas) between the Mississippi 
river and the crest of the Rocky Mountains, was pur- 
chased from France. A claim upon the Oregon terri- O'^er terri- 
tory was soon afterward made by discovery and ex- ^j^Jifgiy. 
ploration, and finally settled in 1846 by treaty with erumei ts. 
Great Britain. In 1848 by conquest, and in 1853 by 
purchase, the remaining Pacific lands were acquired 

from Mexico. All of this vast region has been at some 
time under territorial government. As for Texas, on 
the other hand, it has never been a territory. Texas 
revolted from Mexico in 1836 and remained an inde- 
pendent stale until 1845 when she was admitted to the 
union. Territorial government has generally passed 
through three stages: First, there are governors and 
judges appointed by the president; then, as population 
increases, there is added a legislature chosen by the 
people, and empowered to make laws subject to con- 
firmaticm by Congress; finally, entire legislative inde- 
pendence is granted. The state is then ripe for admis- 
sion to the union as a state. 

133. The national government was to guarantee to Guarai --> 
each of the states a republican form of government, '=''"'^« 
and to protect each of them against invasion or, on ap- 
plication of the legislature or governor, against domes- 
tic violence. This clause makes a republican govern- 
ment necessary in every state. It is equivalent to 
saying that no other shall be permitted to be estab- 
lished. This is the only instance in the constitution 
where the government has a duty enjoined upon it, 
while the particulai department is not mentioned. 
Here the obligation is from the United States to'the 
states; but whether to be exercised by the president or 
by Congress is one of the questions that has grown out 
of the reconstruction measures. In the case of Rhode 
Island the supreme court held " It rests with Con- 



Gtrniwuh P 




M:..L^i;a is 



U^^ITEI) STATES 



gress to decuic what govfrnmciit is the establishod one 
in a slate. For, as the United States f^uaranlec lo each 
Btatea republican s<>vernnient. Congress must necessar- 
ily decide what ,i;overniiient is c-talilished before it 
ran determine whether it is republican or not. And 
when the senators and representatives of a state are 
ndmilled to the councils of the union, the authority of 
the government under which they are appointed, as 
well as its republican character, is recognized by the 
proper authority." 
nipnhlicnn V."3. The constitution <loes not define a reptibUcan 
^vui" government. The national government may be as- 
sumed to be republican in form, and thus a model for 
the stales. Mr. Mailison says: "We may define a re- 
public to be ug<.vernment which derives all its powers 
directly or iiidirectlj' fnim the great body of the peo- 
ple, and is administered by persons holding their offices 
during pleasure, for a limited period, or during good 
behavior." Farrar says: "The principle of republi- 
canism is the ecjual right of the people, the citizens, all 
the members of the body politic. In theory it is the 
government of public opinion. The fundamental prin- 
ciples of right and justice for the government, the 
representative character of the ^governors, and their 
practical responsibility to the governed, are the essen- 
tials of republicanism." 
Stat.' gov- 13.1 T4ie constitution indirectly requires various 
emmcD s. ],rovisioiis in the state governments by enjoining duties. 
The senators of the United States are to be elected by 
the state legislatures. Members of the house of 
representatives are to be elected by the same electors 
as vote for the members of the most numerous branches 
I of the state legislature. The e.veculive of the states is 

often referred to. The judges are to take oath to obey 
the constitution of the United Slates. Thus the states 
must have three great departments, the legislative. 
executive and judicial. The lei.Mslature must be in two 
branches, and the most numerous branch must be 
elected by the peojile. The states are supposed to have 
written constitutions. 

iSr>. One of the strongest objections urged by its 
opponents agauist the adoption of the constitution as 
it came from the hands of the convention, was the 
want of a recognition of certain rights of citizens. To 
meet this objection, in September, 1TH9, the first ten 
^tTamend- '""^'"''"*'"'* were proposed by Congress, and in De- 
ments, cember, 1791, they were declared in force. These ten 
amendments, which are called a " Bill of Rights," 
because they contain a list of the rights deemed most 
important to the liberty of the people, do not change 
any original provision of the constitution. They act 
merely as restrictions and limitations upon the powers 
of Congress, and were deemed unnecessary by those 
who framed the constitution for the reason that these 
rights were st generally acknowledged, and that the 
powers of Congress were limited to those expressly 
granted to it. But as several of the state conventions 
had, at the lime of adopting the constitution, expressed 
a desiie that declarations and guarantees of certain 
rights shoidd be added in order lo prevent miscon- 
struction and abuse, the first Congress, at its first 
session, proposed twelves amendments, ten of which 
were ratified by the recpiisite number of states. These 
amendments forbade the establishment of any religion 
by Congress, or any abridgment of freedom of worship, 
Df speech, or of the press, or of the popular right to 
assemble and petitilion the government for redress of 
grievances, the billeting of soldiers, unreasonable 
searches or seizures, or general warrants, trials for 
infamous crfcnes except through the action of a grand 
jury, subjecting a person for the same offence to be 
twice put in jeopardy of life or limb, compelling him 
to witness against himself in criminal cases, the taking 
of life, liberty, or property without due process of law 
or without compensation for property, and the demand 
of excessive bail, or the impo-ition of excessive or of 



cruel or unusual punishments. They confirmed the 
right of the people to keep and bear arms, to a jury 
trial from the vicinage in criminal cases or in cases 
involving more than twenty dollars, to a copy of the 
indictment, to the testimony against the prisoner, lo 
compulsory process in his half, and to counsel for him. 
Finally, it is declared that " the enumeration of certain 
rights shall not be construed lo deny or disparage 
others retained by the people," and that "the powers 
not granted to the United States by the constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the 
states respectively, or to the people." 

1.3(i. All the debts of the federation, and its engage- 
ments, were made binding on the new government; 
j and the constitution, and the laws and treaties to be 
! made under it were declared to be " the supreme law ^nprcnio 
of the land;" the judges in every state were lo be bound 1""^°' ""' 
thereby, "anything in the constitution or laws of any "" " 
stale to the contrary notwithstanding." The language 
of this clause is clear and explicit. The people of tiie 
United Slates established this constitution for the 
United States. It was the work of the nation itself, 
and was binding in every part of the republic. This 
clause was intended to allirm the supremacy of the 
national government over the state governments. If 
the constitution was not the supreme law of the land 
it would not be a consitution, it would be a nullity. 
Its supremacy is necessarily involved in the instninieiit 
itself, yet it was necessary to declare it, in order that 
all might understand it and no room be left for 
controversy. 

VI. tPE OOVaRNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. 

137. As soon as the constitution had been ratified by 
the retjuisite number of states. Congress named the 
first Wednesday in .January. 1789, as the day for the 
choice of electors, the first Wednesday in February lor 
the choice of president and vice-president, and the 

first Wednesday in March for the inauguration of the '"""Eura- 
new government at New York city. The last date fell [,'r"^i"/,,„t. 
on the 4th of March, and this has been the limit of each 
president's term since that time. The electi<m took 
place at the appointed time, and when the votes of the 
electors were counted before Congress it was found 
that George Washington had been unanimously elected Wa^liiug- 
prcsident, and that .John Adams, standing next on the '""Jjjjl;*"' 
list, was vice-president. Before the inauguration, the 
old Confederate Congress had " given up the ghost." 
On October, 1788. its record ceased, and for nearly six 
months the United States were without any national 
government. The contest fornationality had been suc- 
cessful, and the old order of things passed away for 
ever. 

138. The nation over which George Washington wiis I'lic condl- 
called lo preside in 17.'<9 was athird-rate power, inferior''"""'"'* 
in population and wettlih to Holland, for example, and '^"'"'"'^^' 
about on a level with Portugal or Uenmark. The first cen-Tho flret 
sus was taken in 17',}0, and the population was then four "'asue. 
millions. The people were thinly scattered through the 
thirteen states between the Atlantic and the Alle- 
ghanies, beyond which mountainous barrier a few hardy 
pioneers were linking the begirininirs of Tennessee, 
Kentucky, and Ohio, Roads were few and bad, ntnie 

of the great rivers were bridged, mails were irregular. 
There were few manufactures. There were many 
traders and merchant seamen in the coast towns of the 
north, but the great majority of the people were 
farmers, who lived on the produce of their own lands, 
and sclclom un<iertook long journeys. Hence the dif- 
ferent parts of the country knew very little about each 
other, and entertained absurd prejudices, and the 
sentiment of union between the states was extremely 
weak. Kast of the Alleghanics the red man had ceased 
to be dangerous, but tales of Indian massacre still came 
from regions no more remote than Ohio and tJeorgia. 
Spain still held vast possessions west of the Mississippi. 



UNITED S T A T E S 



The only other power which had possessions in North 
America was Enghind. The feeling entertained toward 
the states in England was one of mortification and 
:hagrin, accompanied by the hope that the half formed 
jnion would fall to pieces, and its separate states be 
iriven by disaster to beg to be taken back into the 
British empire. The rest of Europe knew little about 
the United States, and cared less. 
Ttie bcsin- 139. It was under these circumstances that the young 
"ins of 'hi" government began its career, and it was fortunate for 
ni'en™ it t'lat it began under the auspices of such an ad- 
ministration as Washington's. Congress met in New 
York, March 4, 1789. It adopted twelve amendments 
to the constitution, ter of which, as has been shown, 
were ratified by the states. But the most pressing 
business before Congress was to obtain money to pay 
the debt of the confederation. This dirticult work was 
so successfully accomplished that little change has been 
found necessary in financial methods from that day to 
this. Washington's cabinet consisted of Thomas 
Jefferson, as secretary of state ; Alexander Hamilton, 
as secretary of the treasury ; and Henry Knox, as 
secretary of war. John .Jay was appointed chief 
justice, and Edmund Randolph attorney-general. 
The financial success of the government was mainly 
due to the organizing genius of Hamilton, assisted by 
the skill and tact of Madison, as leading member of the 
hoi;se of representatives. Hamilton saw in the pay- 
ment of the national debt an opportunity to give 
strength to the United States in the eyes of foreign 
nations. He saw also that it gave an opportunity to 
bind the states in a more perfect union. He proposed 
Hamilton's three measures: First, that the government should 
meaeares. assume the foreign debt of the Confederation, and pay 
it in full • secondly, that the domestic debt, yvhich 
seemed to have been virtually repudiated, should like- 
wise be assumed and paid ; thirdly, that the debts of 
the separate states should also be assumed and paid by 
the federal government. The first proposition was 
adopted unanimously. The second was opposed on the 
ground that it would only benefit speculators, who had 
bought up United States securities at a discount ; but 
by dint of forcible reasoning the measure was carried. 
The third measure caused great debate, and met with 
violent opposition. There was a fierce and bitter 
fight over it, which at last was only settled by great 
political manipulation. 
Federalists 140. There were already two parties in the country, 
iiKianti- t]jg Federalists, who desired a strong general govern- 
c em IS s jjjgjj).^ j^ml ^jjp jjjji-] urgpj the people to accept the con- 
stitution, and the anti-Federalists, who wished to give 
more power to the state government, and less to the 
general government. Hamilton was the leader of the 
Federal party, and the anti-Federalists united to defeat 
his last measure. At this time the .site of a Federal 
capital was to be selected. The northern people gen- 
erally wished to have it not further south than the Del- 
aware river, while the southerners were determined to 
have it no further north than the Potomac. Hamilton 
was bent on carrying his point, and took advantage of 
this dispute. He persuaded two Virginia congressmen 
to change their votes and support his measure. In re- 
turn he promised to use his intiuence to have the capii al 
located upon the banks of the Potomac, instead of at 
some northern point. This change of votes gave him 
the requisite majority. The assumption of state debts 
was a master stroke of policy. All those persons to 
whom any state owed money were at once won over to 
the support of the Federal government. Many of these 
persons were powerful and wealthy; and all now felt a 
common interest in upholding the national credit, 
which, through these wise and vigorous measures of 
H.imilton, was soon completely restored. 
Revenue. I'il- The next siep was to raise a revenue for the 
currying on of the government, and this must be raised 
by Federal taxation. There were two ways in which 



tills could le djne — by imposing duties on goods im- 
ported into the country, or by lev3'ing internal taxes. 
By the first method, the United States would declare its 
riijht to tax foreigners; by the second, to tax its own 
citizens. The former method was mainly resorted to, 
because it was more indirect, and because the people, 
as yet, did not like the idea of being directly taxed to 
support the general government, even though it had 
been established by themselves. However, a tax was 
laid upon the manufacture of spirituous liquors in 17'J4, 
and this caused serious trouble. The settlers in the 
mountains of ^Pennsylvania and Virginia had long since 
found out that it cost more to carry their corn and 
wheat to market than they could sell it for, and accord- 
ingly they distilled it into whisky. When Cousiress 
laid a tax on whisky, they bitterly opposed it, and when Whiskyin- 
the revenue officers came to collect tbe tax, the settlers '^"■''■"-■'-'"o''- 
refused to pay it, and threatened to take up arms. But 
Washington instantly sent an army of sixteen thousand 
men into the disaffected region, and the insurrection 
was summarily suppressed. 

143. The Indian tribes on the Ohio became very Indian war. 
troublesome to the settlers who now began to pour into 
the west. General Hartner, who was sent against the 
savages in 1790, was defeated near the present site of 
Fort Wayne, Indiana, and General St. Clair met with a 
similar di-iaster tbe next year. General Waj ne ("Mad 
Anthony") was then despatched to the Indian country. 
He devastated their villages, sweeping everything be- 
fore him. till he reached the Maumee river, in the north- 
west corner of Ohio. There he won a great victory near 
the site of Maumee City, August 20, 1794, and obliged 
the Indians to sue for terms. By a treaty concluded in 
the following year, the United States acquired from the 
savages a large tract for settlement in the present states 
of Ohio and Indiana. 

143 About this time the divisions between political Origin of 
parties become strongly marked. The occasional irrita- P|'litical 
tion shown in the debates in Congress is an evidence '''''^ '^^" 
that the first ill defined estimate of the new scheme of 
government was giving way to positive and settled 
opinions of its powers, and of the policy which should 
be followed in manuging it. As we have seen, people 
were first divided into two great national parlies in the 
autumn of 1787, when the question at issue was whether 
the Federal constitution should be ratified by the states. 
It is probable that a majority of the American people 
were anti-Federalists in 17S9. although the Federalists, 
by the active assistance of mwny of their natural op- 
ponents, had gained the executive, the house, the ju- 
diciary and most of the state legislatures, and were able 
to defeat the disagreeing factions known collectively as 
anti-Federalists. Hamilton's measures as secretary of 
the treasury embodied an entire system of puhlicpolicy, 
and the opposition to them made the differences be- 
tween the two parties still more prominent. Hamil- 
ton's opponents, led by Jefferson, made the objection 
to his principal measures that they assumed powers in 
the national government which were not gr.anted to it 
by the constitution. Hamilton then fell back upon the 
elastic clause of the constitution, and maintained that 
these powers were implied in it. Jefferson held that this 
doctrine of "implied powers" stretched the elastic clause* 
too far. He claimed that this clause ought to be construed 
strictly and narrowly. Hamilton contended that it 
ought to be construed loosely and liberally. Hence the 
names "slrict-constructionist" and "loose- construction- 
ist," which mark, perhaps, the most profound and abid- 
ing antagonism in the history of American politics. 

144. During the year 179'3, the various anti-Federalist 
factions had become cemented into one party through 
their efforts in resisting the Federalists, but the party 
still lacked a name. That of anti-Federalist was no 
longer applicable, for its opposition to the Federal 

* Article I., Section VIIT., Clause IS. 



V j^ i'r !•: 1) 



ST 



A T 1-: .s 



union bad enlirt-ly censed, siiiil the parlies b:icl become 
divided in tbe only sound iind bealtliy wiiy possible in 
a free country, namely, into lliose wbo wished to ex- 
tend. and those who wished to limit, the powers of gov- 
ernment. Neither parly had bei^n consistent in apply- 
inji its principles, but in the main, llainilton can be 
called the founder of the Federalist party, which bad 
for its successors the National Kepulilicans of iy'.;H. the 
Whigs of lf<;J3 to 1S.53, and the Kepublicans of 1S.')4 to 
the present time; while .lelferson luay be ii'garded asthe 
founder of the- party which, after discardini;- the old 
name of anli Federalist, adopted that of Democratic- 
Hepublican. This always w^as the offu-inl parly title. 
They jireferred to be called Kepublicans. while their 
enemies tried to call them Democrats, au epithet which 
was tlien supposed to convey a stigma. However, the 
correct name for this parly was Republican from about 
171)2 to alxml isi8, and since then it has been known as 
the Deinocr.ilic party. 

14."). At the request of both Federalists and Republi- 
cans. \Va>hiiii;lon cmisenled to serve as president a 
second time, so tlnit the party contest was narrowed 
down to th(! vice-presidency. For this otlice the anti- 
Federalists, or Kepublicans. as they were now called, 
supported George Clinton, of Nev? York, while the 
Federalists presented the name of John Adams. .Jef- 
ferson wi>ulddoublles9 bavebeen put fi>rward, but that 
would have cost Virginia her vole, for her electors 
could not have Toied for Washington and . lelferson, 
both being from Virginia. The presidential election 
took place November 6, 1702, and resuUed in a Fed- 
eralist success and the re-election of .lohn Adams. 
During Washington's first term, Vermont, by consent 
of Congress, was admitted into the Union (February 
IS, 1701.) and Kenlucky became a stale on the 1st of 
June, 1792. In the year 17111 a bill for the establish- 
ment of a national bank was inirodueed into Congress, 
which passed after a strong debate. 

140. During the first years of the American Republic, 
the terrible scenes of the French Revolution were en- 
acted. Jefferson and the anii-Federalists sympathized 
strongly with the French Revolulionists. and wished to 
aid them in their struggle against the Kuropean jiowers. 
This parly specially alT<'cted the leveling principles 
avowed by the French Kepublicans. an<l the opposite 
party did not object to the>c principles to a limiled de- 
gree. Karly in April, 170:!, news was received that the 
French Republic had declared war against (ireat Hrit- 
ain and Holland. It e.vcited the sympathies of the 
American people for their sister republic, even thouiih 
tlnit republic was the aggressor; and it needed a firm 
hand ami indomitable will like Washington's at this 
time to control public allairs. for the country was in a 
position to drift easily into war as an ally of France. 
VVashington consulted his cabinet, and by their unani- 
mous ailvice delerinined to regard the former treaty as 
nullified by the change of government in France, and to 
issue his proclamation of neutrality between the French 
Republic and ber enemies. The proclamation at once 
called down a storm of rage and invective against the 
president. He was assaile<l by the press and e.Ktreme 
republicans, and accused of being an eliemy to France 
and republican institutions, of disregarding a solemn 
treaty, and of usurping the functions of Congress in re- 
gird to the announcement of peace or war. 

147. The French e.\pected the Americans to help 
them Id their war with England; and in 170;i they sent 
over a minister to the rnited States to induce them to 
do so. This man was called Citizen Genet. He arrived 
at Charleston, South Carolina, in April, and was re- 
ceived wiih the most extravagant marks of public 
attachment. Misled by the warmth of bis reception. 
he entered on and persisted in a course which would 
only have been pardonable if he had been still on 
French soil. He fitted out privateers from American 
ports to cruise against the enemies of France, and 



sought to embark tbe American people in the cause of 
his country whatever might be the determination of 
the government. Many Keimblicans were disposed to 
uphold him in all his acts, but his insolence presently 
disgusted his own siipporiers. He violently assailed 
President VVashington and the government, and other- 
wise misbehaved himself, until VVashington sternly 
checked his proceedings, and at length complained of 
him to the French government, which thought best to 
recall him. 

148. About this time war was apprch^'nded between Tlircaiifiic' 
the United Sia'es and England. England baa never "'"r"'''^ 
accredited a minister resident to the United States, and ^'^ ' 
had refused to carry out those articles of the Treaty of 
178:i. which bound her to surrender her military posts 
on United Stales soil, and to [lay for the slaves carried 
away by her armies. She had also issued orders which 
bore hard upnu American merihanls and sailors. She 
claimed the ri;; lit to lay h<ild of any provision for the 
enemy which she might tJnd in a neuiral vessel, to seize 
the product of French colonies wherever found; and to 
board any vessel to make search for seamen of Hritish 
birth, and carry thiin olT for her own service. It 
was also believed that her agents had interfered to 
prevent treaties of peace with the savages of the north- 
west, and had incited them to renewed attacks upon 
the frnritier setllemeiits. Her refusal to evacuate the 
western jiostswas grounded on the alleged unjustifiable 
neglect of the United Stales to enforce that article of 
the treaty of !78;i which provided for the jiayment of 
debts due to British subjects. For her further offensive 
measures no justiticalion was offered, except her sover- 
eign will. Gut of these circumstances war might 
easily have grown, and it re(|uired ail the wisdom of 
Washington and his advisers to prevent it. So bitter 
was the fotling against England held by men of both 
parties, that Congress beijan at once to take measures 
to raise au ami)', equip a navy and to slop all commerce 
with her. War was imminent, and Washington deter- 
mined to avert it. 

140. He appointed John Jay. who was then chief Jay's 
justice, to be envoy extraordinary to England, for the''''^*'y- 
purpose of preserving peace by a new treaty, in whii h 
the points in dispute between the two couniries should 
be selllcd Jay concluded a treaty with England 
which did not satisfy him. but which was the best he 
could secure. It reached America March 7. 1700, and 
was sent to the senate in special session. June 8. The 
treaty provided that the wesicrn posts be surrendered 
to the United Stales, that compensation be made for 
illegal captures of American [iroperty, and British 
'credilors be secured llic means of collecting debts, con- 
tracted prior to the lievolution. But England still 
retained the right of impressing American seamen of 
English birth, and of diulling off American commerce 
from the West Indian trade. When the conditions of 
the treaty became known there was great excitement 
in all portions of the country, and the wrath of the 
Republicans rose to fever heal. Hamilton was stoned 
on the street, end scurrilous newspapers raile<l against 
Washitiglon, calling him the " step-father of his 
country." But the .stnale ratitied the treaty, and 
Washington signed it. because, imperfect tbotigh it 
was, it was better than none, and would avert war. 
It was the first substantial recognition which England 
had made of the sovereign rights of the United Slates, 
and the result proved Washington's wisdom, for peace 
prevailed, commerce rc'Vived. and many who had at 
first denounced the treaty, became its friends. 

150. During Washington's second term, party con-^'"''''. 
tests had become numerous in the sessions ol Congress. 
After much opposition on the part of the Republicans, 
the Federalists succeeded in passing a .system of in- 
direct taxation to provide for the increased expenses of 
the government. A Federalist bill to prevent such 
practices as Genet's was opposed by the Republicans, 



UNITED STATES 



but was passed with some modifications. An attempt 
was made by sumo of the Kepublicans to secure the 
passage of resolutions censuring Hamilton's manage- 
ment of the treasury, but it met with no success. The 
supreme court had decided that an action brought by a 
citizen of the United States would lie against a state, 
just as against any other corporation. This alarmed 
the Republicans. An amendment to the constitution 
was therefore adopted by Congress, securing states 
against suits in the United States courts. It was after- 
ward ratified by the required number of states, and 
The Xltb became the Xllh Amendment, which has enabled so 
iMeii?. " many states to repudiate debt with impunity. In June, 
1796, Tennessee, formerly a part of .North Carolina, 
became a state of the union. 

151. The time for a new election of president was 
now at hand. Washington was importuned to accept 
a third term of office. Klectors nominated by both 
parties were called upon to promise that, if elected, 
they would give their first votes to Washmgton, but he 
refused to accept. When he retired from the presi- 
« ashing- dency he made a farewell address to the people of the 
wrlTad""" United States. In that address, which is weighty with 
ji.ss. words of wisdom, he urged the people to prize the 
Union which they had formed ; to remember that each 
part of the country had free intercourse with all other 
parts, and that each could help the other. He begged 
them to suffer no parties to gain ascendancy in the 
Union which should weaken its strength, and bade 
them to glory in the name of America. He reminded 
them that Europe had interests in which America had 
little concern, warned them against the admission of 
any European or other foreign influence into American 
councils, and urged them to make religion, education 
and pulilic good faith the basis of government. 

153. As Washington refused to be a candidate for a 
third term, the election of 1796 was warmly contested 
by the two parties. No formal nominations were 
made but it was understood that the Re[.niblican 
electors would cast their votes for Thomas Jefferson, 
af Virginia, and Aaron Burr, of New York, and the 
Federalist electors for John Adams, of Massachusetts, 
ind Thomas Pinckney, of Maryland. Hamilton, hav- 
ing made so many enemies by his political zeal, was 
The priiici- not considered a suitable candidate. The principles of 
P'l'" "f ""' the two parties were distinctly understood. The 
^"'■''"■'"^"Republicans claimed to be the friends of lil)erty and 
the rights of man, the advocates of economy and of 
the rights of the states. The Federalists claimed sup 
port as the authors of the Government, the friends of 
netitralily, peace and prosperity, and the direct in- 
heritors of Washington's policy. In February, 1797, 
the electrical votes were counted, and John Adams, 
the Federalist candidate, was found to be elected 
president, and Jefferson, according to the rule at the 
time, as second on the list, became vice president. 
This was an unwise rule, since under it the death of 
the president might reverse the result of the election. 

103. On March 4, 1797, Adams and Jefferson were 
sworn into office. Shortly after the commencement of 
President Adams' administration the French Directory, 
displeased with the strict neutrality which the United 
States had observed during its war with England, and 
also on account of the treaty of peace which had 
been recently entered into between England and the 
United States, adopted resolutions highly injurious to 
Difflcnltics American commerce, and refused to receive Mr. 
France. Pinckney, the American minister, until the United 
States had complied with their demands. The first 
act of Mr. Adams was to call an e.\tra session of Con- 
gress, to determine how a war with France was to be 
avoided. A special commi^sion of three envoys was 
sent to France, John Marshall, afterward chief justice, 
Charles Pickney and Ell)ridge Gerry, but the French 
government refused to receive them. Prince Talley- 
rand had the impudence lo send secret agents to deal 



with the envoys. These agents demanded that a large 
sum of money be paid the government before the 
envoys could be received at all. After that the United 
States must lend money to France to enable her to 
carry on her war. When this was done France would 
repeal some of the acts which injured American com- 
merce. 

154. The envoys indignantly refused to accept such 
terms and sent home to America an account of this 
infamous proposal, and Mr. Adams laid the dispatches 
before Congress, substituting the letters X. Y. Z. for X. Y. Z. 
Talleyrand's emissaries. Hence, these papers have '■'SP*''''^^- 
ever since been known as the "X. Y. Z. dispatches." 

April 8 the senate voted to publish the X. Y. Z. letters 
and the dispatches of the envoys. To England they 
seemed of such importance that they weresent to every 
part of Europe to excite feeling against France. One 
burst of indignation arose in America, and for the 
moment the Republican party seemed overwhelmed. 
Pinckney had declared, " Millions for defence, but not 
one cent for tribute," and the words were taken up as 
a popular cry. The United States prepared for war. 
A few excellent frigates were built, an army was 
raised, and Washington was placed in command with 
the rank of lieutenant-general. It was during this 
excitement that the song of "Hail Columbia" was 
published. American men-of-war were ordered to 
seize any French vessels which should coinmitdepreda- 
tions on American commerce, and some naval engage- 
ments took place with success on the American side. 
Intercourse with France was suspended. The tre^ities 
with France were no longer binding upon the United 
States, and authority was given to the president to 
issue letters of marque and reprisal. 

155. The country was now on the side of the govern- 
ment. The Federalists, who had been losing ground, 
were now stronger than before. They attempted to 
strengthen the government still further by passing in 
Congress two acts called the alien and sedition laws. Alien and 
The first of these acts, passed June 25, 1798, author- |'f^^''°° 
ized the president to order out of the country any alien 
whom he might regard as dangerous to the peace and 
liberty of America, and made provisions for the fining 

and imprisonment of such aliens as refused to obey the 
president's order. July 14 the sedition law was passed. 
By this act a heavy fine and imprisonment were im- 
posed upon such as shoidd combiue or conspire to- 
gether to oppose any measure of the government, and 
upim such as should utter any false, scandalous or ma- 
licious writing against the government. Congress or 
president of tjae United States. This act was to re- 
main in force until March 3, 1801. These )awj placed 
a power in the hands of the government which alarmed 
the Republicans. They claimed that the laws were 
aimed against them. They opposed the action of C!on- 
gre^s. not as friends of France but as Ame-icans. They 
believed that less power should be given to the federal 
government, and more to the separate states. This be- 
lief, which so nearly prevented the adoption of the 
constitution, had never disappeared. It showed itself 
on every occasion, and helped to shape the course of 
the Democratic-'Republican party. This party came to 
be called the Statesright party, because it was jealous 
lest the states should not have all their rights under the 
constitution. 

156. Thus, when the Federalists forced through Con- 
gress the alien aud sedition laws, they called forth a 
vigorous remonstrance from the southern Re|iublicans. 
A series of resolutions, drawn up by Jeffer-ion, was 
adopted by the legislature of Kentucky (1798\ and a 
similar series, drawn up by Madison, was adopted in 

the same year by the legialature of Virginia. These '^^'^S'^y 
are known as the Kentucky and the Virginia Re:^"Iu- j,i„ia pp^n. 
tions of 1798. The Virginia Resniuiions asserted that lutions of 
in adopting the constitution the states had surrendered f^S**- 
only a limited portion of their powers; that whenever 



U >[ 1 '1^ E 1 ) « '1^ A T E iS 



the Federal (lovernraeivt should exceed its deleirateii 
authority, it was the riifhl and duly of the states to in- 
terpose and pronounce euch acts unconstitutional. Ac- 
corilingl)', by these resolutions, Viriiinia declared the 
alien and sedition laws to be n usurpation by the Fed- 
eral government of powers uot granted to it, and were 
thereby unconstitutional; and she appealed to the other 
states to join in that declaration. The response from 
other states beiiiff unfavorable. Virginia repealed those 
resolutions the ne.\t year. 1799. 

1.57. The attitude assumed by Virjrinia in these reso- 
lutions was certainly uncalled for. either on her part 
or that of any other state, inasmuch as the constitu- 
tionality of the acts of Congress could be decided by 
a competent Irilnuuil only — the federal supreme court. 
Kentucky The Kentucky Uesolui ions were to the same general 
resolutions gfi-pj,( „g )li(,j;(."of Virginia, but with the additional dec- 
laration Ih^it the federal constitution was merely acom- 
pact, to which the several states were the one party 
and the feileral government the other, and that each 
parly mu^l deciile for itself as to the infractions of the 
compact, and as to the proper remedy to be adopted. 
These rescfliitions received as little attention as those of 
Virginia. In the following year (1799) Kentucky re- 
pealed the resolutions, but with the additional clause 
that a state mivht rightfully nullify and declare void 
any act of Congnss wliicU it might consider unconsti- 
tuiional. This was a dangerous assumption, for it 
verged upon the right of secession, and these resolu- 
tions were used by the south as a partial precedent for 
nullification in 1^<33, and for secession in ISOO. 

l.'jt*. Meanwhile, though there was open hostility be- 
tween France and the United States, war was uot act- 
ually declared. The French, seeing the warlike alti- 
tmle of the United States, became more civil. Talley- 
rand tried to disavow the X. V. Z. affair, and made 
conciliatory proposals to Vans Murray, the American 
minister at the Hague. The president had exitressed 
his determination to send no more ministers to France 
until assured of a friendly reception, but he suddenly 
appointed three envoys to that C(mnlry against the pro- 
test of two of his cabinet. Their protest was sus- 
tained by the leading Federalists throughout the coim- 
try, and by this act the president lost, in some degree, 
the support of his party. For some time also there had 
been intense jealousy and dislike between Adams and 
Hamilton, the other great Feder.alist leader, and this 
increased Iheditricultiesof the Federalist party. When 
the new embassy reached Paris, they found the gov- 
ernment in the hands of Napoleon Bonaparte, who 
gave them a cordial welcome, and they soon succeeded 
in settling the matters in dispute in an amicable man- 
ner. The policy of John Adams in making peace with 
France, contrary to the popular sentiment, demands 
the highest commendation, but it lost him the presi- 
dency for a second term. 
Death oj 159. On the Mih of December. 1709. George Wash- 
Waelriug- jngton died at Mount Vernon after only one day's ill 
'*"'■ ness. The event was mourned all over the United 

States with sincere sorrow, and was appropriately ob- 
serveil by Congress and other public bodies. Bonaparte 
ordered the standardsof the French army to be shrouded 
in crape for ten days, and in England a fleet of sixty 
British men-of war lowered their flags to half mast. In 
Ifr^movnl of I'"' following year the national capital was removed 
ihicapltiil. from Philadelphia to the site chosen on the banksof the 
Potomac. The city there laid out received the name of 
of Washington. 
Tlie fourth ]on. By the spring of 1800 it became manifest that 
I'iaU-lcc" *'"^ Fediralist parly was losing ground. In April the 
lion. New York state election went against them. Soon 

after this, the dismissal by the president of some of the 
the cabinet officers who were too friendly with Hamil- 
ton, caused an irreparable break in the party. Hamil- 
ton printed a severe attack on the president, and en- 
deavored to make arrangements for giving I'inckney a 



majority of Federalist electors that he might be chosen 
president and Adams vice-president, as these two were 
the nominees of the Federalist party. The Hepublican 
candidates were Thomas .leflerson, of Virginia, and 
Aaron Burr, of New York. The fourth presidential 
election took place in November, ISOO. The election 
was very clo.se. In February. ISOl. the electoral votes 
were counted, of which 73 were for Jefferson, 73 for 
Burr. (!■"> for Adams, (i-1 for Pinckney, and 1 for Jay. 
There was no highest name on the list, and it was left 
for the house of representative s to choose between the 
two highest candidates. The house was Federalist, but 
was restricted to a choice between two Republicans. 
Some of the Federalists wished to elect Burr instead of 
their great opponent, Jefferson, but Hamilton used all 
his inlluence against such a scheme, and at last, on 
February 17. lyoi. Jefferson was elected by the house, 
and Burr became vice-president. 

101. The inauguration of Jefferson was the first that Fourth 
took place in the city of Washington. The new presi- |';h^"'u8triv- 
dent's first inaugural message announced the future 
policy of the Hepublican party to be careful fostering 
of the state governments, the restriction of the powers 
of the Federal government to I heir lowest constitutional 
limit, the immediate paynu'ul of the national debt and 
the reduction of the army, the navy, the taxes, and the 
duties on impoits. to the lowest available point. Many 
of the Federalists believed that speedy ruin to the coun- 
try would follow the advent of Jefferson to the presi- 
dency. He was "an atheist in religion and a fanatic in 
politics," and the vice president was only more tolerable 
because less known. The parly which supported them, 
it was claimed, was composed of revolutionists, disor- 
gani/.ers and Jacobins. The Federalist party, which 
contained the larger portion of the intellect, wealth and 
culture of the country, honestly believed, no doubt, 
that the government had fallen into bad hands. But 
their fears were grovuidless. The president's first ad- 
ministration was marked by national prosperity. The 
principal oltices of government were transferred to the 
Uepublican party, and executive pardons were issued 
to those persons' who had been imprisoned under the 
alien and sedition laws. The supreme court, under the 
lead of CJhief Justice Marshall, remained Federalist in 
complexion, and did a grand work for several years in 
interpreting and strengthening the constitution. Presi- 
dent Jefferson instituted the custom of sending a writ- 
ten message to both houses of Congress as more befit- 
ting Republican simplicity, instead of giving the ad- 
dress in person, which had hitherto been the rule. 

1G3. The population of Ihe United Slates was rapidly The 
increasing, and was beginning to press forwardinio the I-ouisiana 
Mississippi valley. In ISO'J Ohio was admitted into the I"'"'"'"'<'- 
union; Mississippi and Indiana were already organized 
as territories, and a growing interest was felt in the 
western country. By a secret treaty with Spain in 
1800. France had recovered the territory of Louisiana; 
the Spanish civil ollicers, however, were left in com- 
inaiul. and in 1803 the S|)anish intendant at New Or- 
leans issued a proclamation closing the Mississippi to 
American commerce. This action threatened to result 
in war. Jefl'erson had opened negotiations with Napo- 
leon for the purchase of the territory. The French em- 
peror had at lirsl refused to treat on theeubject. He 
had accpiired this territory with the vague intention of 
regaining the French ascendancy in America, which 
had been lost in the seven years' war. Knowing that 
whoever controlled the month of the Mississippi nuist 
become master of the whole valley. Jefferson proposed 
to buy New Orleans. Napoleon had refused this, also, 
but in ISO;i the prospect of a renewed war with Great 
Britain made him change his mind. He knew that in 
case of war an English fleet would be sent to take pos- 
session of Louisiana, and that it would be impossible 
for the French to hold the port of New Orleans. He 
was determined that the place should uol fall into the 



UNITED STATES 



The 

TripolUan 

war. 



bauds of liis powerful enemy, ro he offered to sell it to 
the United States for fifteen million dollars. The presi- 
dent at ouce agreed to the proposition, though he be- 
lieved that the constitution gave the Federal govern- 
ment no power to purchase foreign territory and make 
it a part of the union. lu this instance, an article for 
the ratification of the purchase was prepared as an 
amendment to ihe consliiution. but was never offered, 
as the president's action met with a general acquiescence 
and has since been imitated in similar instances with- 
out question. The Louisiana purcha.se included every- 
thing west of the Jiississippi not already occupied by 
Spain, and comprised the whole or part of the present 
states of Arkansas, Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana. 
Minnesota, Missouri. Nebraska, Oregon, the two Dako- 
tas, Montana, Washington, Wyoming, Idaho, and 
the Indian territory. The effect of this great acqui- 
sition of territory, by such an active and prosper- 
ous people as the Americans, was to insure theru the 
ultimate control of the continent without incurring any 
foreign warfare wortli historic mention. It set the na- 
tion free for an indefinite length of time from European 
complications, but, on the other hand, it was the means 
of creating some new and formidable features in the 
rivalry between the free states and slave states. 

1G3. The Barbary states on the southern shores of 
the Mediterranean were in the habit of sending out 
piratical vessels to prey upon the commerce of other 
nations and reduce their sailors to slavery. All the 
great powers of Europe, as well as the United States, 
had a(l(>pt(d the custom of paying tribute to these petty 
governments, in order to secure immunity for their 
trade. But these pirates grew increasingly insolent, so 
that the [jatience of the American government became 
entirely exhausted. A small fleet was sent out to the 
Mediterranean, which bombarded Tripoli. After a 
desultory warfare extending over two years, the Tri- 
poliians sued for peace. The English government 
then followed the example of the Unitea States, and in 
a few years more this abominable nuisance was sup- 
pres.^ed. 

In the latter part of 1803, during the first session of 
the VIII Congress, the manner of the presidential 
election was amended to the form which it has at 
present. The amendment having been ratified by the 
necessary number of states, this became the XII 
amendment to the constitution. Articles of impeach- 
ment were voted by the house against a federalist 
juritie. Chase of Maryland, for arbitrary and oppressive 
conduct in trying cases under the alien and sedition 
laws. At the next session of Congress in 1804, Chase 
was tried and acquitted. 

164. In 1804 Jefferson was re-elected president, with 
George Clinton for vice-president, in place of Aaron 
Burr, who had separated from his party. Tlie feder- 
alists then made Burr a candidate for the governorship 
of New York, but here, as in 1801, Hamilton used his 
influence against him, and Burr was defeated. Resent- 
ing this opposition. Burr contrived to force Hamilton 
into the acceptance of a challenge. They met on July 
11, 1804, and Hamilton was killed. The mourning of 
the country over the loss of this distinguished man 
was intense, and the wretched Burr foiin<l that his 
public career was at an end. Bankrupt in fortune, and 
a fugitive from home, he visited New Orleans and 
other parts of the south and west (1805) for the pur- 
Burr's con- pose of arranging an enterprise whose exact object has 
never been positively discovered. He planned either 
the seizure of Mexico, or the establishment of a mon- 
archy west of the Alleghanies. He was arrested by 
the federal government on a charge of treason, aud 
was tried before Chief Justice Marshall in September, 
1807, but after a long investigation he was acquitted 
in consequence of a defect in the chain of evidence. 
Afterward he became an outcast from society and died 
in obscurity. 



The XTfth 

aiiK-nd- 

infiit. 



tfamilton 
and Burr. 



epiracy. 



Ifi5. On the 1th of March, 1805, Jefferson and Clin- 
ton were sworn into ofHce. Jefferson's second admin- 
istration was the beginning of a stormy period which 
ended in war. The wars of Napoleon still continued, 
aud France and Great Britain were using every expedi- 
ent to crii)ple eich other without regard to the rights 
of neutral nations. In the beginning of these wars 
the United States, being a neutral power, had acquired 
a valuable foreign commerce, but this was speedily 
destroyed by the arbitrary measures of the belligerents. 
With his famous Berlin aud Milan decrees. Napoleon 
sought to prevent neutral vessels from entering British 
harbo's, and claimed the right to seize all vessels trad- 
ing with England or her colonies (1806). England 
replied with her orders of council issued by the king, 
which forbade all commerce with the ports of Europe 
that were within the French dominion or in countries 
allied witk France. If an American vessel touched at 
almost any port of continental Europe, the first British 
cruiser that came along deemed her its lawful prey, if 
she touched at a British port, she was liable to capture 
by the first French craft that she should meet. Jeffer- 
son had abandoned the policy which Adams had 
adopted of building a strong navy. He imagined it 
possible to defend American harbors by means of gun- 
boats carrying each one gun, and had recommended 
this plan, which Congress adopted. This "Gunboat 
System" was always hateful to the navy, and was a 
constant object of federalist ridicule and attack. 

166. While the offensive measures of Enf.dand and 
France made American merchantmen a prey lo both 
parties, En_g!and, in another respect, possessed a pecu- 
liar power of annoying the United States. She still 
claimed and exercised the right of stopping American 
vessels and seizing all sailors, even naturalized citizens, 
who were supposed to be British subjects. In June, 

1807. the insolence of thi.s claim was carried so far that 
the British man-of-war. Leopard, stopped the United 
States frigate, Chesapeake, off the entrance of Chesa- 
peake Bay, fired into her, killing or wounding twenty- 
one of the crew, and took off four men, three of whom 
were Americans. President Jefferson demanded repar- 
ation fur this outrage, and issued a proclamation order- 
ing all British war vessels out of American waters. 
The British government wa3 ready to disavow the act 
of the Leopard, but there was no willimjness shown to 
make reparation. Feeling unprepared for war, the 
United States government had recourse to an exceed- 
ingly stupid and dangerous measure. The president 
recommended a bill by which American vessels should 
be prohibited from leaving foreign ports, and foreign 
vessels from taking cargoes from the United States, 
and all coasting vessels should be required to give 
bonds to land their cartfoes in the LInited States. This 
was the celebrated Embargo Bill, which did more 
harm to American commerce than all the cruisers of 
France and England were able to do. It al?.o intensi- 
fied party feeling and even threatened the existence of 
the union. 

167. As time went on the Embargo Act became so 
unpopular that before the close of Jefferson's second 
term many of his friends forsook him. A great pres- 
sure was brought to bear upon Coniire-ss to repeal the 
act. It passed in its place the Nnu-intercoiirse Act. 
This act prohibited trade with England and France so 
long as their obnoxious measures should be kept in 
force, but if allowed free trade with other countries. 
Among the other important events of Mr. Jefferson's 
administration were the passing of an act of Congress 
prohibiting the slave trade after January 1, 1808; the 
beginning of the United States coast survey, a valuable 
work which is still continued to the great credit of 
American science, and the application of steam to 
navigation by Robert Fulton. Jefferson refused to be 
a candidate for a third term, and at the election in 

1808, Jamea Madison, of Virginia, was chosen president 



Jefferson's 
second 
administra- 
tion. 



The right 
of searbh. 



Embargo 
bill. 



Non-inter- 
course act. 



Other 
ovcnlB. 



u .N 1 '1^ i: I) s '1^ A '1' i: s 



Ijy tlic Hepublican, or, as it now began to lie called, 
the Democratic party. Clinton was re elecletl vicc- 
presiilent. The caniiidates of the Federalists were 
C. C. Piuckuey and Uufiis King. 
Madinnn's l(>8. The Nouintercoiirse Act went into force March 
"im'"'"'*"* '*• *^'*'*' ^'^^'" ^''■- *I»'''>^<'" succeeded lo the presidency. 
He belonged to Jefferson's party and eonunued his 
policy. Party feeliiiif had grown very biltcr. New 
Kugland, which suffered the greatest from the break- 
ing up of trade, was the stronghold of the Federalists. 
They complained loudly that if it were not for the 
Embargo and Non intercourse Acts there wo>dd be no 
trouble. The southern and western people, who were 
principally Democratic Republicans, retorted that they 
had evidence of negoliatious between Ac New England 
Federalists and England; that the Federalists were 
pianning for a separation of New England from the 
union. This charge was indignantly denied, but it 
helped increase political hostilities. In ISIO Congress 
repealed the Non-intercourse Act, which had accom- 
plished nothing in the way of intimidation. Congress 
then informed England and France that if either 
nation would repeal its obnoxious measures the Non- 
intercourse Act would be revived against the other. 
Napoleon was studyinsr how ho might get the advan- 
tage of England, and he withdrew, or pretended to 
withdraw, his decrei s prohibiting commerce with 
England so far as the United States were concerned, 
but at the same time gave secret orders by which the 
decrees were to be practically enforced as harshly as 
ever. Congress at once revived the Non-intercourse 
Act against Great Britain alone. 
Bi-'gionipg 169. England and the United States grew more 
of^hoBtih- jrriiateil with each other, and in ISU hostilities actually 
began on sea and land. In May the United States 
frigate Prenidiiit hailed the British man-of-w.",r Little 
Belt and was answered by a shot. The President then 
replied with a shot in turn, and a sharp action ensued 
in which the Little Belt was badly crippled, and lost 
thirty-one killed and wounded. Tecumseh, the famous 
Shawnee chief, had gathered a large number of war- 
riors, and at the instigation of the British they were 
attacking the northwestern settlements. General Har- 
rison marched against them, and on November 7 he 
defeated them at Tippecanoe. The English continued 
to seize vessels and men. More than nine hundred 
American vessels had been seized since 1808, and 
several thousand American seamen had been impressed 
into the British service. The people of the United 
States were exasperated at their losses and their in- 
ability to protect themselves. JIadison wished to 
continue the general peace policy of Jefferson, but new 
leaders had sprung up in the Keimblican party who 
were in favor of war. Chief among these were Henry 
Clay, of Kentucky, speaker of the house, William H. 
Crawford, in the senate, and John C. Calhoun, of 
South Carolina, in the house. These became the 
recognized congressional leaders of the party. The 
economical and retrenching policy of JelVerson was 
abandoned, and preparations were begun for hostilities. 
Bills were passed to enlist men, to organize the militia 
and to enlarge and equip the army. 

17(1. President Madison was given to understand that 
his nomination for a second term of ollice depended 
upon his adoption of the war policy, otherwise De Witt 
Clinton, of New York, would be noniituUed in his 
stead. The president accepted the eoiwlilions and on 
June 18, 1S12, war against Great Britain was furmally 
declared. It Wfis soon learned tiiat the British gov- 
ernment had revoked the orders in council live days 
after the declaration of war, but this concession came 
too late. Even if it had come in time probably nothing 
short of an abandoment of the right of search and 
impressment on Great Britain's part would have proved 
satisfactory. The war feeling was by no means unan- 
imous. The New England Federalists bitterly op- 



Dcclara- 
tiou of war 



posed it. The chief support came from the south and 
west, which felt less keenly the effect upon their 
prosperity, caused by the breaking up of commerce. 
Immediately after the declaration of war the Federalist 
mend)era of Congress had published their protest 
against it in an address to their constituents. When 
re(iiiisitious were made by the president upon the 
governors of the dill'ercnt stales for their respective 
<luotas of troops, according to the act passed by Con- 
gress to embody the militia, the governors of Massa- 
chusetts and Connecticut refused to allow their militia 
to leave their slates on the ground that itwasuncon- 
stitutioiud for the Federal government to call out the 
militia except in case of an invasion or resistance lo 
the laws of the United States, and neither of these had 
taken place. April ;iO, 1813, Louisiana was admitted 
into the union of states. 

171. The war opened by the invasion of Canada by 
General Hull, who was ordered to cross at Detroit and 
attack Fort Maiden a few miles distant, but he was 
compelled to fall back again to Detroit. Here he was 
attacked by a large force of British and Indians und<T 
General Brock and Tecumseh. Believing he was not 
strong enough to defeiul the place he surrendered 
(August 1(>, ISI'J). not only Detroit, with its garrison 
and stores, but the whole territory of Michigan. Being 
exchMnge<l, after some time he was tried by a coun- 
martial on charges of treason and cowaidice. He was 
aciiuiiedof treason and was sentenced to be shot for 
cowarilice, but was pardoned by the president on 
account of his past goo<l services. In October another 
attempt was made upon Canada near Niagara. A 
small force crossed the river and attacked the British 
in a strong jiosition on (^ueenstown Heights. At first 
the Americans were successful but were at last defeated 
with heavy loss. 

172. To compensate for these disasters on land the 
little American navy won imjierishab'.e glory on the 
ocean. The United States frigate Esscr, Captain 
Porter, captured the British sloop-of-war Alert after a 
fight of eight minutes, witlumt losing a man. The 
Constitutian, Captain Hull commanding, fought a 
famous action with the Ilritish frigate Oucrricre near 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence; (.-Vugust 1!)). and in less than 
an hour completely destroyed her. This victory dis- 
pelled the belief that the British navy was invincible, 
and the whole country was tilled with transports of 
delight. On the ISlh of October the sloopof war 

Wasp, commanded by Captain Jones, captured the 
British brig of-war Frolic off the coast of North 
Carolina, but the same day the British shiji /'inrtier-s 
took both the captor and her prize. On October 25 
the frigate I'niled St'it,/.-, under Commodore Deca- 
tur, fought a memorable action with the British 
ship Mariiloniini . 'which surrendered to Decatur after 
being nearly cut lo pieces. This engagement took 
place oft' the Island of Madeira, but Decatur succeeded 
in carrying his prize to America. The Constitution, 
commanded by Cajilain Bambridge, in a two hours' 
fight off the coast of Brazil, knocked to pieces the 
British frigate Jura (December 2!)). which lost 230 men 
and had lo be l)urned, while the Constitution lost but 
twelve men and not a single spar. 

17;i. During the first six months of the war the de- 
spised American navy, of which even the Americans 
expected but little, became llie admiration of the world. 
Privateers also were very active, and before the end of 
the year the captures from the British numbered about 
fifty vessels of war. two hun<lred and fifty merchant 
vessels, and three thousand men. Under the impulse 
of these successes the Federalists, who had been op- 
posed lo the war, were beaten in the autumn elections, 
and Madison was re elected president, with Eldridge 
Gerry for vice-president. The American disasters on 
land had led the government to collect o large army, 
which was placed under the command of General Uar- 



Tlio war 
of 1811.'. 



Surrender 
<if Detroit. 



Queene- 

towii 

IleightP. 

Xiiviil 
exploits. 



Tlie re-elec- 
tion of 
Maditiou 



UNITED STATES 



Tbe war in 
the* north- 
west. 



Battle of 
Luke Erie. 



The Creek 
war. 



Events on 
the sea. 



On the 

Niagara 
frontier. 



rison. He first made an attempt (January, 1813, ) to re- 
cover Detroit and tbe territory of MicLiigan, but vtas 
driven back to Fort Meigs by Proctor, who besieged 
him there, but unsuccessfully. So much of the frontier 
was occupied by the great lakes that it was of the great- 
est importance to get control of these, and for this pur- 
pose, both British and Americans were busily engaged 
during the summer of 1813 in building fleets. Captain 
Oliver H. Perry directed the building of the fleet on 
Lake Erie, and sailors were sent forward from the sea- 
coast. He had just completed nine vessels, which were 
at anchor in Put-In-Bay, when he saw the British ap- 
proaching. He at once moved out to meet the enemy 
(September 10) and in a little more than two hours was 
able to send this dispatch to General Harrison, who was 
in command on the Sandusky: "We have met the 
enemy and they are ours; two ships, two brigs, one 
schooner, and one sloop." This victory turned the 
scale of war in the northwest. Harrison shipped his 
army across the lake in Perry's fleet, and attacking 
Proctor at the River Thames (October 5), inflicted a 
crushing defeat upon him. This was a severe blow to 
the Indians also, fur their great leader, Tecumseh, was 
killed. The American success restored the northwest- 
ern territory to the country. 

174. In the spring of 1813 Tecumseh had visited and 
roused the Creek Indians of the southwest, and in 
August they took occasion to attack the frontier settle- 
ments, beginuing with the terrible massacre at Fort 
Mimms, near Mobile. General Andrew Jackson, with 
the formidable Tennessee militia, marched into the 
Creek country, and won a series of telling victories, by 
which they were entirely subdued, and purchased peace 
by the surrender of two-thirds of their hunting grounds. 
In the meantime tL a British, after the defeat which 
they had suft'ered from the American navy in 1812, 
strengthened their Atlantic squadron. During the sum- 
mer of 1813 they attempted to blockade the coast from 
Maine to Georgia. Congress, in turn, hastened to build 
new ships; and the courageous privateers continued to 
fight pluckily, and to bring prizes into the United States 
ports. In Feijruary, 1813, the American sloop Hornet, 
Captain Lawrence commanding, destroyed the British 
brig Peacock, which sank before all of her crew could 
be removed. On his return to the United States, Law- 
rence was promoted to the frigate Chesapeake, with 
which, on June 1, he had a severe engagement with the 
British frigate Shannon, near Boston. Lawrence was 
mortally wounded at the beginning of the action. As 
he was carried below, he e-xclaimed: "Don't give up 
the ship!" The Cliesapeake, however, was captured by 
boarding, after she had lost a large proportion of her 
ofiicers and men. The Aryus, Captain Allen, was cap- 
tured by the British man-of-war Pelican (August 14), 
after a gallant tight in which Captain Allen received his 
death wound. Lieutenant Burrows, in the brig Enter- 
prise, captured the British brig Boxer (September 5), 
after a short action. The frigate Essex, Captain P<irter, 
made a brilliant and successful crui.''e during the year 
1813, and did great damage to the British commerce. 
At length, however, she was attacked in March, 1814, 
by the British ships Phoebe and Cherub, and after the 
bloodiest fight of the war, the Essex was compelled to 
surrender. The sloop Peacock captured the British 
brig Epervier off the coast of Florida (April, 1814). 
The Wasp made a brilliant cruise, taking a number of 
British vessels. The old Constitution, Captain Stewart, 
engaged singly the British sloops-of-war Cyaue and 
Levant off the coast of Portugal, and captured both in 
a remarkable night engagement, February 20. The 
Hornet capttired the British brig Penguin in March, off 
the Cape of Good Hope, and in June, the Peacock closed 
the long record of victories by taking the British ship 
Nautilus. These last three actions took place after 
peace had been concluded. 

175. In the summer of 1814, the Americans made a 



fresh attempt to invade Canada under General Brown, 
with whom served Brigadier-General Winfield Scott. 
They crossed the Niagara river and in four hard fought 
battles defeated the British at Chippewa (July 5), Lun- 
dy's Lane (July 35), and Fort Erie (August 15 and Sep- 
tember 17), but in spite of these successes, they could 
not establish themselves in Canada, and retired across 
the line before cold weather came. In March, 1814, 
Napoleon was dethroned and sent to Elba, and the 
European war being over, England was enabled to spare 
more men for the war in America. Her policy was to 
march two armies into the United States. One was to 
descend from Canada by the route which Carleton and 
Burgoyne had followed, and the other was to land at 
New Orleans and move northward. To divert atten- 
tion a fleet under Admiral Cockburn sailed up the Poto- 
mac and attacked the capital. There was scarcely any Capture of 
resistance, and the British wantonly destroyed public ^^''"''''"»" 
buildings, books and papers (August, 1814). Nothing ^°''' 
was spared except the patent office and the jail. The 
British them moved upon Baltimore. General Ross and 
his troops were landed a few miles below the town, but 
the Americans gallantly repulsed them. Then the fleets 
bombarded the forts which protected Baltimore (Sep- 
tember 12 and 13). Fort McHenry received the hottest 
fire from the fleet. It was upon seeing the flag still fly- 
ing from the fort, when the smoke cleared away, that 
Francis S. Key wrote the national song, "The Star- 
Spangled Banner." The fleet finally abandoned the at- 
tempt and sailed away. 

176. The British in Canada, having been reinforced 
by the arrival of fresh troops from England, advanced 
with an army of fourteen thousand men under Prevost, 
to attack Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, while a Brit- 
ish squadron, under Captain Downie, sailed up the lake 
to co-operate with him. The Americans, under General 
Macomb, being only fifteen hundred strong, fell back 
behind the Saranac, and there made a vigorous defense. 
They had also a squadron of small vessels under Com- 
modore Macdonough. and this was stationed at the en- 
trance of Plattsburg bay. Captain Downie attacked 
Macdonough (September 11, 1814), at the same time 
that General Prevost attempted to force the passage of 

the Saranac, but the British fleet was annihilated by Battle of 
Macdonough and Prevost, beaten at every point by Ma- Plattsburg. 
comb, retreated in disaster to Canada. But while this 
attempt on New York proved a failure, the British suc- 
ceeded in seizing the unoccupied wilds of Maine east of 
the Penobscot river, and thus created a panic in New 
England. 

177. The expedition against Washington was de- The war in 
signed chiefly as an insult; the expedition against New the south. 
Orleans was for conquest. If the British could gain 

this important position they would control the Missis- 
sippi and the western country. In December, a British 
army of 12,000 men under General Parkenham, landed 
below New Orleans. General Jackson hastened to that 
city with 6,000 militia to oppose him, and fortified the 
town as best he could. After a fortnight's siege the 
British determined to assault the American works. 
Early on the morning of January 8, 1815, they made 
the attack. Jackson's men, trained to rifle shooting 
and aided by artillery, met them with great coolness, 
and in less than half an hour the British were in full 
retreat, leaving Pakenham and 2,600 men behind 
them, killed or wounded, while the American loss was 
but 8 killed and 13 wounded. This battle also occured 
after peace was declared. 

178. Negotiations for peace had been begun in Au- 
gust, 1814. The American government was anxious 
for almost any honorable peace in preference to con- 
tinuing the war with England. The latter country had 
revoked the orders in council long before, but still 
England's demands were such that they could not be 
accepted with honor by the Federal government. The 
war feeling was thus continued among the republicans, 



U ^ 1 T EDS T A T E y 



The 

Ilarlford 

couvi'iiiion 



and some of their kiulers began to meditate measures 
which the strict coustnictionist principles of the party 
would not justify. Propositionb were made to intro- 
duce the Eni;lit.h system of impressment of seamen, 
and of allowing ollieers of the army to enlist minors 
over eighteen j-eiirs of age without the consent of their 
parents or guardians. The Connecticut legislature 
ordered the yovernor to resist the execution of these 
and similar measures if Ihey should become laws. In 
view of these things, and provoked by the British in- 
Viision of Maine, the legislature of Massachusetts had 
invited the other New England states to send delegates 
to Hartford. Connecticut, "to confer upon the subject 
of tlieir public grievances. ' Delegates from Massa 
chusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island, and from 
parts of Vermont and New Hampshire, met at Hart- 
ford in December, ISM, to discuss the .situation of af 
fairs and decide upon the proper course to be pursued. 
Among other measures tbey recommended the adoption 
of several amendments to the constitution, chiellj' w.lh 
intent to restrict the powers of Congress over com- 
merce, and to prevent naturali'.ed ciii/ens from hold- 
ing olliee. As there was much secrecy in its proceed- 
ings a popular suspicion was aroused that a dis.xohition 
of the union had been proposed, perhaps resolved 
upon, in its meetings. This suspicion completed the 
ruin of the Federalist party. Some years afterward 
the journal of the convention was published in order 
to justify its members, and to show that no treasonable 
designs were otlieially proposed. It was then, how- 
ever, too late to be of benetit to the party, for thef)op- 
ular opinion had become li.xed. 

17!). The final negotiations for peace took place at 
Ghent, in Belgium, the commissioners on tbe[)arlof 
the United States l)eing John Quincy Adams, .lames 
A. Baj-ard, Henry Clay, Jonathan Russell ami Albert 
Gallatin. The treaty was signed December 24, 1814, 
and promptly ratified by both governments. It was 
welcome to the administration, whose want of ex- 
perience in the conduct of the war had involved the 
country in great financial straits. The treaty left things 
apparently just as tliey had been before the war. 
Nothing was said about the right of search and im- 
pressment of seamen, out of which the war aro.se. but 
the United States had shown to the European nations 
that she would not bo insulted with impunity. The 
British ceased to enforce their claims, and hence the 
United Stales may be said to have succeeded in the 
object of the contest. England with<lrew her claims 
to sovereignty. The nation was not only established 
in its own domain, but it had equal rights with Eu- 
rope on the broad seas. The last vestige of subjection 
to the Old World disappeared when Decatur sailed 
into the harbor of Algiers in June, 181.5. That country 
had again declared war on the United States Decatur 
compelled the Dey lo come on board Mis flag ship and 
sign a treaty renouncing forever all demands against 
Americans. The other Barbary Stales signed similar 
treaties, and from that time on American commerce 
became completely free. 

180. The close of the war marks the final downfall 
of the federal party. From this period the few remain- 
ing Federalists ceased from any united party action. 
There was but one party, whose principles consisted of 
a combination of those which had characterized the 
original i"'ederal ai d Republican parties. The leading 
principle of the Federal party, the establishment and 
continuance of tlie Federal government, had been ([uielly 
adopted by the Re[iublicans, while the Republican prin- 
ciple of limiting the' duties and powers of the govern- 
ment had been as quietly accepted by the F'ederalisls 
after the Republican party had come into power. In 
the presidential election of 1816. the Federalist can- 
didate, Riifus King, received only :i4 electoral votes 
against lSi7 for the Republican candidale. James M(m- 
roe. His administration lasted from 1817 to 1825, for 



in 1820 the Federalists put no candidale in the field, 
and Monroe, being nominated for a second term, his 
election was practically unanimous. His administra- 
tion has been called the " Era of good feeling." I'co- Tl\r craof 
pie forgot the old t|iiarrels in their joy at the end of P""'' '"-'"^^ 
the war and Ibe revival of business. For a time the ' 
violent party feeling, which had (lamed so high during 
the Kuropean strife, had quieted down. New occasions 
for political contest had not yet come. Congress oc- 
cupied itself cbietly in the regulation of internal affairs. 
Taxes were reduced, and a slight increase was made in 
the tarilT. The feeling was growing among the Re- 
publicans that the tarilT ought to be so arranged as lo 
afford protection to those manufactures which had 
been developed in the I'niled States during the war, 
but were now suffering from a competition with the 
cheaper goods which w<'re im|K)rled from England. 
But no action was taken on the subject. 

181. As has been slated, the charter of the national T''cniUion- 
bank which had been granted during Washington's first "' ''""''- 
adminislration, had expired in 1811, and the Repub- 
licans, then in power, had refused tore-charier il. The 
attempt to carry on the war by loans had resulted in 

almost a state of baiikrupitcy. In April, 1810, a bill 
was passed; granting a charter for a national bank to 
expire in 18;i(i, It was modeled upon the one which 
the Republicans had formerly opposed. The Repub- 
lican lu'wspapers warmly aiivocaled the scheme, and 
republishecl Hamilton's argument in favor of such a 
bank, thus showing how far loose const ructionist ideas 
had spread in the Republican party. The bank was 
organized with a capital of $3.">,()0(),000, four-liflhs of 
which miglit be in government stock. It was to have 
custody of the government revenues, but the secretary 
of the treasury was empowered to divert the revenues 
to other custodians, giving his reasons for such actions 
to Congress. 

182. In 1817 hostilities brok« out with the Seminole 'I>onWf in 
and Creek Indians of Spanish Florida, Georgia, and '■'■""du. 
Alabama; General Jackson, being sent to the scene of 
disturbance, chastised the savages and destroyed their 
villages. Jackson, with all his admirable qualities, was 

not a cautious man. Satisfied that the Spaniards had 
incited the Indians to make war, he invaded Florida 
(April, 1818), and took possession of Spanish forts and 
bui't a fort of his own. Then be seized Pensacola and 
sent the Spanish troops and civil aulhorities to Havana. 
Though Jackson's high-handed measures w ^re not fully 
sustained by Congress, yet, so popular was he, that 
instead of being reproved by Congress, he was regarded 
as a great hero worthy of warmest praise, Spain vigor- 
ously protested against these proceedings as a gross 
violation of neutrality, but she was too weak to offer 
any effectual resistance. The matter was finally ar- 
ranged by the purchase of Florida by the United States 
for $.5,000,000(1819). 

18;i. The growth of the nation was so rapid tha' for "imwili of 
six years afler the close of the war of 1812 a new state ""= "^"on- 
was added each year. Indiana was added in 1816. 
Mississippi in 1817. Illinois in 181S, Alabama in 1819, 
Maine in 1820. and Missouri in 1821, The population 
now numbered nearly ten millions ; the public revenue 
had increased from live million dollars durin.,' the time 
of Washington to twenty-Bve million dollars Since 
1790 the government had granted patents to its inven- 
tors, A few had been granted prior lo 1812. but after 
that the number increased rapidly. In 18;W the patent 
ofliee was made a distinct bureau under the secretary 
of state, and a commissioner of patents was appointed 
at its head. The great coal and iron regions lying in 
the Appalachian range were now yielding their riches. 
Charcoal was formerly used in sinelling iron, but in 
1820 the ironworkers of Pennsylvania began to make 
experiments in mixing anthracite coal with charcoal. 
When it was found that anthracite coal could be used 
alone, the manufacture of iron received a new impetus. 



UNITED STATES 



ami increased rapidly. With a country so large, and 
with a population spreading in every direction, the 
urgent demand of western settlers for some quicker and 
easier mode of inter-communication and transportation 
led to a variety of plans to accomplish the end. Private 
companies and sometimes the state built roads and 
canals. The greatest of these public works was the 
Eri„ canal. Erie canal, which owed its execution chiefly to the 
energetic governor of New York, De Witt Clinton. It 
was begun in 1817, and opened for traffic in 183,5 It 
extended across the slate from Lake Erie to the Hud- 
eon, and was the largest canal in the world. When the 
enterprise was first undertaken, and until its com- 
pletion, it was called "Clinton's big ditch," but it was 
one of I he principal means by which the city of New 
York became the chief commercial city of the new 
world. This was before the locomotive had been per- 
fected, so that steam railroads were not yet in 
operation. 
^!Dam- 184. In 1807, Robert Fulton had invented the steam- 

aoats. boat. In 1811 a steamboat was launched on the Ohio 
river at Piiisburg, an<i presently many like craft were 
traveling the western rivers, thus opening an easy 
means of communication between distant points. Juft 
after the Erie canal was begun, a steamboat was built, 
which was tbe first to navigate Lake Erie. The next 
year the steamer Savannah crossed the Atlantic, went 
as far aa St. Petersburg tnd returned. Six years later, 
when the Erie canal was finished, the steamer Enter- 
pn'xii went from America to India,by way of the Cape 
"^iiilroads. of Good Hope. In 1826 the first railroad in the United 
States was opened from Milton to Quincy, in Mas- 
sachusetts. It was only two miles long, and was used 
for hauling granite, the cars being drawn by horses. In 
183it the first passenger railroad in America was opened, 
llie Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which was fifteen 
mile-t in length. The cars were at first drawn by horses, 
but with next year a locomotive was used. The con- 
struction of railroads now began in all directions, and 
during the next twenty years nearly ten thousand of 
miles were built. By the spplication of steam to in- 
dustry, the di>covery of large tracts of coal and iron 
ore, the inveution of labor saving machines, the com- 
munication by steam and railroad, the means were 
given to an energetic people for transforming the 
wilderness of the southern half of North America into 
a rich and prosperous country. 

185. In its international relations the action of the 
government had become strong, quiet, and self- 
respecting. Mexico and the Spanish colonies of South 
America had revolted against Spain and established 
republics, and in 1822 President Monroe acknowledged 
them as independent nations. During the revolt it 
seemed likelv that the " Holy Alliance" of Austria, 
Prussia, and Russia meant to assist Spain in bringing 
her revolted colonies to obedience. Great Britain had 
been gradually withdrawing her support from the 
alliance, and Canning, the new British secretary, 
determined to impress a check upon it by calling in 
the weight of the American government. A hint was 
given to the American minister, and in his annual 
message to Congress, in 1823, Mr. Monroe declared 
Mnnroe that "We could not view an interposition for op- 
-JiM-uine. pressing them (the South American states), or in con- 
trolling in any other manner their destiny by any 
European power, in any other light than as a mani- 
festation of au unfriendly disposition towards the 
United States." This statement announced the great 
fact that " the American continents are not to be con- 
sidered as subjects for future colonization by any 
European power." This principle, so boldly declared, 
became known as the " Monroe doctrine," and, having 
the full sympathy of England, it proved effectual. 
The attitude of the national mind implied in such a 
declaration showed that our period of national weak- 
ness had come to an end. 



186. Before the Revolution all the colonies held negro The slavery 
slaves, but north of Maryland these slaves were few in "y^''^™- 
number, and were soon emancipated in all the northern 
states e.\cept Delaware. In the early years of the 
Republic many of the wisest men in the south were 
desirous of getting rid of slavery. All but three of the 
United States which made the confederation forbade 
the iiriportation of slaves. These three were North 
Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia; and they insisted, 
when the consitution was formed, that the right to 
import slaves should continue until 1808. At the close 
of the eighteenthcentury there was astrong auti-slavery 
feeling even in Virginia and North Carolina, and the 
supposition generally prevailed that the slavery system 
would gra(Uially die out without causing any serious 
polilical trouble. In two states only. South Ciroliiia 
and Georgia, was slavery looked upon with any marked 
degree of favor, and this was owing to the fact that 
these two states were mostly given to the cultivation of 
rice and indigo, which seemed to make slave labor 
indispensable. lu 1783, the famous cotton-gin was The 
invented by Eli Whitney, a Connecticut school master ^''^'S'"- 
living in Georgia. The construction of this muctiine 
was so simple tliat the slaves could use it, and cotton 
could be cli'aned and prepared for market with great 
rapidity. Hitherto very little cotton had been raised ia 
South Carolina and Georgia, but with the advent of the 
cotton-gin, cotton-growing became a profitable industry, 
and in consequence there was an increasing demand for 
slaves. As the importation of slaves had been prohib- 
ited by the constitution after 1808, the colton-plsiuters 
could henceforth obtain slaves only by purchasing tliem 
in such border states as Kentucky and Virginia. To 
the tobacco-planters of these states, this seemed to 
promise a source of great profit, and many of them 
gave their attention to the raising of slaves for the 
southern markets. Hence anti slavery sen limeuts were 
soon extingui>hed among them. There was no likeli- 
hood now that slavery would die a natural death. The 
interests of the south seemed to be' bound up in the 
slavery system, and the way was prepared for uniting 
all the slave states into a solid south, as opposid to 
a solid north. The grea'est danger to slavery had been 
the growing conviction that it v,-as wrong in principle 
and that the nation ought not to permit it. But slavery 
existed under the laws, ani.1 the states where it did not 
exist were not at first disposed to interfere. They held 
that slavery was purely an affair of tbe states in which 
it was found. Besides, the northern States were now 
engaged in a variety of enterprises, while the southern 
States were still chiefly employed in the few agricultural 
industries of tobacco, cotton, rice, an 1 sugar. The 
south thus looked to the north for c othing, tools, 
much of their food, and all the luxuries of life. The 
merchants of the north found a great market for their 
goods in the south; their manufaciurers, also, needed 
cotton to keeptheirmillsin motion. For these reasons, 
chieflj', the relations between the two great sections in 
regard to slavery had not been disturbed; but the time 
was at hand when this question of slavery was to be 
the paramount one in the whole republic. 

187. In the northwest territory slavery was prohib- The slavery 
ited by law; in all territories south of that domain it struggle, 
was permitted. There soon grew up a contest between 
the free and the slave states for control of the govern- 
ment, the south wishing to extend the area of slaverj' 
by the admission of new slave states, the north seeking 
to confine the institution to the localitie v here it 
already existed, while the abolitionists of the North 
wishe 1 to put a stop to it altogether. Thus began the 
"irrepressible conflict" between free and slave labor 
which ended, after more than forty years, in the great 
civil war. It was not until the Mississippi was 
crossed, and settlements began to be made in the great 
territory originally called Louisiana, which Jefferson 
had added to the national domain, that the question 



U .N L T El) tS T A 'V i: ti 



arose whether the states iiiaiie from it were to be slave 
elates or free. The tirsi discussion wai over the admis- 
sion of the territory of Missouri as a state. A kind of 
compromise had been kept up from the befjinnini; by 
admiltinjf a shive state and a free stale by turns, so as 
to eouiilerbalanee eaeli other in C'onirress. Tlius Ver- 
mont had been eonntirbaUmced bv Keutuoky. Tennes- 
see by Ohio. Loui>iana by Indiium, Mississippi by 
Illinois. In the same manner, iho admission of Ala- 
bama, in 1S1;». should have eouiiterbalanced lh<' admis- 
, sion of Maine in the following year; but, as Missouri 
was also knoekinii: at the door of C'ougress, the 
southern members refused to admit Maine until it 
should be agreed to admit Jlissouri as a slave stale. 
Thi' Mi- 18S When Missouri applied for permission to enter 
"""■'""";"■ the sisterhood of states, and a bill was brought before 
pniniisi. Congress to ihat effect (1819), an amendment was 
offered to the bill, forbidding s.lavery or involuntary 
servitude in Missouii. except as a punishment forcrime. 
At once party lines were broken. The members from 
the free stales voted for the amendment, and the mem- 
boKs from the slave states against it. It was carried in 
the house, but rejected by the senate, and the bill was 
lost. At the next session of Congress, Missouri again 
presented her plea for admission as a state, and Maine 
made her first application for the same privilege. Tlic 
Slaine bill passed without oppn^iiiou in the bouse, but 
by a sectional vote of that body slavery was again pro- 
hibited in Missouri. In the senate, the Maine bill and 
a Missouri bill permitting slavery were united, and then 
pasieil by a sectional vote. As the case now stood, 
both bills 'were compelled to stand or fall together, 
and Ihe responsibility of their acceptance or rejection 
was thrown upon the house. The house held to its 
first action, and rejected the combined bills as passed 
by the senate. The ditiieulty was at length settled by 
the famous Missouri Compromise of 18:20, in which 
each section gave up some of its demamis, the house 
by permitting slavery iu Missouri, and the senate by 
permitting Maine and Missouri to be voted upon separ- 
ately. Thus Maine and Missouri were admitted into the 
union, the latter as a slave stale ; but it was agreed by 
both branches of Congress that slavery should be pro- 
bibiied forever in all other territories north of the par- 
allel of 3G° 30\ which was the southern boundary of 
Missouri. 
Vipit c.f 189. In 1824, Congress requested President Monroe 

L«K».v.t!o. to invite La Fayette to visit the United States as a guest 
of the nation. The marfjuis, then sixty-seven years of 
age, spent eleven months in a tour of the slates, re- 
ceiving everywhere the highes honors. His great for- 
tune had been lost during the French Revolution, and 
C'onirress voted him a present of a township of land and 
two bundled thousand dollars in money. Ou the ITlli 
of June. lS2o. the (ifiieth anniversary of Ihe battle of 
Bunker Hill. General LaFayelte laid the corner-stone of 
the Bunker Hill monument. There were present on 
the occasii.:< about forty of ihe survivors of the battle 
and two hundred soldiers of the Kevolulion. A mem- 
orable oration was delivered bj' Daniel Webster. 

I'JO In the presidential election of 1824. there were no 
recognized parties, and political issues were so obscure 
Ihat the contest turned chiefly upon the personal merits 
of Ihe candidates. The leading candidates were John 
Quiocy Adams, of Massachu.selts, secretary of slate, 
William U. Crawford, of Georgia, secretary of the 
treasury, Henry Clay, of Kentucky, speaker of the 
house, and Andrew Jackson, a private citizen of Tenn- 
essee. On account of the number of the candidates 
and the character of the contest, the presidental cam- 
rhcprnii) paign of 1824 has been humorously styled ihe "Scrub 
JJ,^,'jJ.y^''^? race for the Presidency". All the candidates claimed 
' to be Uepublicans. Crawford and Jackson were repre- 
sentatives of the strict constructionist principles, but 
Jackson was not in favor with the Crawford faction on 
account of his leaning toward a protective tariff. Adams 



and Clay were loose constructionists. The personal 
nature of the canvass is shown in the tendency of the 
supporters of Ihe different contestants to designate 
themselves as "Jackson men" or "Adams men" 
rather than by any real parly title. John B. Calhoun, 
of South Carolina, was generally supported for the 
vice presidency by the friends of all the other candi- 
dates. In February, 1825, the electoral votes were 
counted, and were found to be, for president. 09 for 
Andrew .Taekson, 84 for John Quincy Adams, 41 for 
William II. Crawford, and 37 for Henry Claj', and for 
vice-president, 182 for John C. Calhoun, and 78 for 
various other per.-ons. Calhoun was therefore declared 
elected vice-president. Jackson had received the 
greatest number of electoral votes for president, but no 
one had a majority; and so the election went to the 
houseof representatives. As Clay stood fourth on the 
list he was not eligible, and only three names were 
open to choice in tiie house. The friends of Clay 
therefore — unable to vote for him — united with the 
j friends of Adams and thus secured the election of the 
latter. The feeling excited by this result had a ten- 
dency to widen the breach between the two divisions of 
the Uepublican party, and before long they became 
openly opposing parlies. 

191. From tlie beginning of Mr. Adam's adininistra- Tli'' .Vlams 
lion, bolh faetiinis of llu; defeated party united iu an "jy™"""'™' 
oppositicn to the president, which continued tlirough 

his whole term of ollicc. Adams appointed Clay to the 
leading position in his cabinet, and at once the charge 
was made that Adams and Clay had formed a corrupt 
bargain, in which the latter had agreed to cast his in- 
fluence in favor of- Adams, in return for which Clay 
should receive tije position of secretary of stale, which 
was then usually considered as the stepping-stone to 
the presidency. This imputation was indignantly de- 
nied by Clay, but the cry of "bargain and intrigue" 
was kept up until Adams ri:tired from the pr<'~idency 
at the end of his four years of office. In the lirst year 
of his administration, the South American states, 
which had now become independent, proposed to nold 'l''"' 
a congress at Panama, to consult upon matters of in- j.y"''°|^^ 
teresl common to the whole of America. They invited 
the United Slates to send delegates. I'resident Adams 
accepted the invitation in behalf of the union. Con- 
gress, however, after a stormy debate, refused to send 
rleiegates. It was claimed that these South American 
stales had abolished slavery, that they were near 
neighbors to the south, that they might include Cuba, 
] which was still a part of Spain, make the island inde- 
pendent, and free the slaves there. The whole scheme 
was fraught therefore with danger to the slave states, 
and was rejected. The slave states were strong sup- 
porters of Ihe doctrine of slate sovereignly. They 
held that the states were independent of one another 
and of the federal government, a doctrine which had 
been held from the beginning of the union. The inde- 
pendent power of the state was a safeguard against too 
great a power in the central eovernment. 

192. The tirst tariff act of 1789 involved the idea of '"''"toctive 
protection to hom(^ manufactures. The duties, however, '''^''''' 
ranged only from 7 J to 10 per cent., averaging about 8J 

per cent. The system, too, which was introduced by 
Hamilton, seemed to be rather for political than 
economic purposes. Up to the passage of the tariff 
act, Ihe laying of duties had been controlled by Ihe 
states. The possibility of secession among the states 
in which the slate-rights feeling was strong, was a 
feature that every statesman had to take into account. 
Hamilton wished to establish the new p^ederal govern- 
ment as tirmly as possible, and his object in the tariff 
system seems lo have been to create a class of manu- 
facturers, runningthrough all the states, liul dependent 
for prosperity on the Federal government and its tariff. 
This would be a strong factor in support of the govern- 
ment against any attempt at secession, or any tendency 



UNITED STATES 



anil increased rapidly. With a country so large, and 
with a population spreading in every direction, the 
urgent demand of western settlers forsome quicker and 
easier mode of inter-communication and transportation 
led to a variety of plans to accomplish the end. Private 
companies and sometimes the slate built roads and 
canals. The greatest of these public works was the 
Erio canaa. Erie canal, which owcil its e.xecution chiefly to the 
energetic governor of New York. De Witt Clinlon. It 
was begun in 1817, and opened for traffic in 183.5- It 
extended across the stale from Lake Erie to the Hud- 
son, and was the largest canal in the world. When the 
enterprise was first undertaken, and until its com- 
pletion, it was called "Clinton's big ditch," but it was 
one of ihe principal means by which the city of New 
York became the chief commercial city of the new 
world. This was before the locomotive had been per- 
fected, so that steam railroads were not yet in 
operation. 
Steam- 184. In 1807, Robert Fulton had invented the steam- 

apate. boat. In 1811 a steamboat was launched on the Ohio 
river at Piiisburg, and presently many like craft were 
traveling the western rivers, thus opening an easy 
means of communication between distant points. Juft 
after the Erie canal was begun, a steamboat was built, 
which was tbe first to navigate Lake Erie. The next 
year the steamer Saeaiuiah crossed the Atlantic, went 
as far as St. Petersburg i;nd returned. Six years later, 
when the Erie canal was finished, the steamer Enter- 
prise went from America to India,by way of the -Cape 
*<ailT0Bd8. of Good Hope. In 1836 the first railroad in the United 
States was opened from Wilton to Quincy, in Mas- 
sachusetts. It was only two miles long, and was used 
for hauling granite, the cars being drawn by horses. In 
18311 the first passenger railroad in America was opened, 
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which was fifteen 
mile-i in length. The cars were at first drawn by horses, 
but with next year a locomotive was used. The con- 
struction of railroads now began in all directions, and 
during the next twenty years nearly ten thousand of 
miles were built. By the spplication of steam to in- 
dustry, the discovery of large tracts of coal and iron 
ore, the invention of labor saving machines, the com- 
munication by steam and railroad, the means were 
given to an energetic people for transforming the 
wilderness of the southern half of North America into 
a rich and prosperous country. 

18.5. In its international relations the action of the 
government had become strong, quiet, and self- 
respecting. Mexico and the Spanish colonies of South 
America had revolted against Spain and established i 
republics, and in 1822 President Monroe acknowledged 
them as independent nations. During the revolt it 
seemed likelv that the " Holy Alliance" of Austria, 
Prussia, and Russia meant to assist Spain in bringing 
her revolted colonies to obedience. Great Britain had 
been gradually withdrawing her support from the 
alliance, and Canning, the new British secretary, 
determined to impress a check upon it by calling in 
the weight of the American government. A hint was 
given to the American minister, and in his annual 
message to Congress, in 1823, Mr. Monroe declared 
Mnnroe that "We could not view an interposition for op- 
*J..iirine. pressing them (the South American states), or in con- 
trolling in any other manner their destiny by any 
European power, in any other light than as a mani- 
festation of an unfriendly disposition towards the 
United States." This statement announced the great 
fact that " the American continents are not to be con- 
sidered as subjects for future colonization by any 
European power." This principle, so boldly declared, 
became known as the " Monroe doctrine," and, having 
the full sympathy of England, it proved effectual. 
The attitude of the national mind implied in such a 
declaration showed that our period of national weak- 
ness had come to an end. 



186. Before the Revolution all the colonies held negro The slaverj 
slaves, but north of Maryland these slaves were few in ^y'''<=™- 
number, and were soon emancipated in all the northern 
states except Delaware. In the early years of the 
Republic many of the wisest men in the south were 
desirous of getting rid of slavery. All but three of the 
United States which made the confederation forbade 
the importation of slaves. These three were North 
Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia; and they insisted, 
when the consitution was formed, that the right to 
import slaves should continue until 1808. At the close 
of the eighteenthcentury there was astrong anti-slavery 
feeling even in Virginia and North Carolina, and the 
supposition generally prevailed that the slavery system 
would gradually die out without causing any serious 
political trouble. In two states only. South C.irolina 
and Georgia, was slavery looked upon with any marked 
degree of favor, and this was owing to the fact that 
these two stales were mostly given to the cullivaiion of 
rice ami indigo, which seemed to make slave labor 
indispensable. In 1783, the famous cotton-gin was The 
invented by Eli Whitney, a Connecticut schoolmaster ™"™'g'°- 
living in Georgia. The construction of this machine 
was so simple that the slaves could use it. and cotton 
could be cleaned and [irepared for market with great 
rapidity. Hitherto very little cotton had been raised in 
South Carolina and Georgia, but with the advent of the 
cotton-gin, cotton-growing became a profitable industry, 
and in consequence there was an increasing demand for 
slaves. As the importation of slaves had been pmhib- 
ited by the constitution after 1808, the cotton-phiuters 
could henceforth obtain slaves only by purchasing them 
in such border states as Kentucky and Virginia. To 
the tobacco-planters of these states, this seemed to 
promise a source of great profit, and many of them 
gave their attention to the raising of slaves for ihe 
southern markets. Hence an ti slavery sentiments were 
soon extinguished among them. There was no likeli- 
hood now that slavery would die a natural death. The 
interests of the south seemed to be bound up in the 
slavery system, and the way was prepared for uniting 
all the slave states into a solid south, as opposid to 
a solid north. The grea'est danger to slavery had been 
the growing conviction that it was wrong in principle 
anil that tbe nation ought not to permit it. But slavery 
existed under the laws, and the states where it did not 
exist were not at first disposed to interfere. They held 
that slavery was purely an affair of tbe slates in which 
it was found. Besides, the northern States were now 
engaged in a variety of enterprises, while the southern 
States were still chiefly employed in the few agricultural 
industries of tobacco, cotton, rice, an 1 sugar. The 
south thus looked to the north for c othing. tools, 
much of their food, and all the luxuries of life. The 
merchants of the north found a great market for their 
goods in the south; their manufacturers, also, needed 
cotton to keeptheirmillsin motion. For these reasons, 
chiefl3', the relations between the two great sections in 
regard to slavery had not been disturbed; but the time 
was at hand when this question of slavery was to be 
the paramount one in the whole republic. 

187. In the northwest territory slavery was prohib- The slavery 
ited by law; in all territories south of that domain it ^^'raggle. 
was permitted. There soon grew up a contest between 
the free and the slave states for control of the govern- 
ment, the south wishing to extend the area of slaverj' 
by the admission of new slave states, the north seeking 
to confine the institution to the localitie v here it 
already existed, while the abolitionists of the North 
wishe I to put a stop to it altogether. Thus began the 
"irrepressible conflict" between free and slave labor 
which ended, after more than forty years, in the great 
civil war. It was not until the Mississippi was 
crossed, and settlements began to be made in the great 
territory originally called Louisiana, which Jefferson 
had added to the national domain, that the question 



U iN 1 ^1^ !•: 1 ) f^ T A T !•: « 



arose whether the stiites nuule from it were to be slave 
sttlte^^ or free. The first disoussion wan over the admis- 
sion of the territory of Missouri as a state. A kind of 
compromise Lad been kept up from the bej^inning by 
adniitlini; a slave state and a free stale by turns, so as 
to eour.terbalance each other in Conirress. Thus Ver- 
mont had been counterbalaiued by Kentucky. Tennes- 
see by Ohio, Loui>iana by liidinnn, Mississippi by 
Illinois, In the same manner, ilie ailniissi<in of Ala- 
bama, in 1819, should have counterbalanced the admis- 
, sion of Maine in the following year; but, as Missouri 
was also knockinc: at the door of Congress, the 
southern members refused to a<lmil Maine until it 
should be a_u:reed to admit Jlissouri as a slave state, 
Thi- Mi- IJjS When jMissouri applied for permission to enter 
Bouri rii;[i- ifjj. tj^ierhood of states, and a bill was brought before 
Congress to that effect (1819). an amendment was 
otlered to the bill, forbidding s.lavcry or involuntary 
servitude in Missoui., except as a punishment forcrime. 
At once party lines were broken. The members from 
the free slates voted for the amendmenl, and the mem- 
bocs from the slave states against it. It was carried in 
the house, but rejected by the senate, and tiie bill was 
lost. At the De.xl session of Congress, Mi.'-bouri again 
presented her plea for admission as a state, and JIaine 
made her first application for the same privilege. The 
Maine bill passed without oppiwition in the house, but 
by a sectional vote of that body .slavery was again pro- 
hibited in Missouri. In the senate, the Maine bill and 
a Missouri bill permitting slavery were united, and then 
passed by a sectional vote. As the case now stood, 
both bills 'were compelled to stand or fall together, 
ami the responsibility of their acceptance or rejection 
was thrown upon the house. The house held to its 
first action, and rejected the combined bills as passed 
by the senate. The difliculty was at length settled by 
the famous Missouri Compromise of 1820, in which 
each section gave up some of its demands, the house 
by permitting slavery in Mis.souri, and the senate by 
pennilting Maine and Missouri to be voted upon separ- 
ately. Thus Maine and Missouri were admitted into the 
union, the latter as a slave slate ; but it was agreed by 
both branches of Congress that slavery should be pro- 
hibiied forever in all other territories north of the par- 
allel of ,3G° 30\ which was the southern boundary of 
Missouri. 
Vlfit nf 189. In 1834, Congress requested President Monroe 

LaFavfitc. to Invite LaFayette to visit the United States as a guest 
of the nation. The marquis, then si.My-seveu years of 
age. spent eleven months in a tour of the slates, re- 
ceiving everywhere the highes honors, ills great for- 
tune had been lost during the French Revolution, and 
Congress voted him a present of a township of land and 
two bundled thousand dollars in money. On the 17th 
of June. 182.1. the fiftieth anniversary of the battle of 
Bunker Uill. General LaFayette laid the corner-stone of 
the Bunker Hill monument. There were present on 
the occasic,:i about forty of the survivors of the battle 
and two hundred soldiers of the Kevolution. A mem- 
orable oration was delivered by Daniel Webster. 

190 In the presidential election of 1824, there were no 
recognized parlies, and political issues were so obscure 
that the contest turned chielly up<m the personal merits 
of the candidates. The leading candidates were John 
Qnincy Adams, of Massachusetts, secretary of slate, 
William H. Crawford, of Georgia, secretary of the 
treasury. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, speaker of the 
house, and Andrew Jackson, a private citizen of Tenn- 
essee. On account of the number of the candidates 
and the character of the contest, the prcsidental cam- 
Thr srniii paign of 1824 has been humorously styled the "Scrub 
SI!'(iid™c'v ^^'^^ ^°^ '^"^ Presidency". All the candidates claimed 
"to be Republicans. Crawford and Jackson were repre- 
sentatives of the strict constructionist principles, but 
Jackson wsxs not in favor with the (Jrawford faction on 
account of his leaning toward a protective tariff. Adams 



and Clay were loose constructionists. The personal 
nature of the canvass is shown in the tendency of the 
supporters of the different contestants to designate 
themselves as "Jackson men" or "Adams men" 
rather than by any real party title. John H. Calhoun, 
of South Carolina, was generally supported for the 
vice presidency by the friends of all the other candi- 
dates. In February. 1825. the electoral votes were 
counted, and were found to be, for president, 99 for 
Aiidn w Jackson. 84 for John Quincy Adams. 41 for 
William II. Crawford, and 87 for Henry Clay, and for 
vice-president, 182 for John C. Calhoun, and 78 for 
various other persons. Calhotui was therefore declared 
elected vice-president. Jackson had received the 
greatest number of electoral voles for president, but no 
one had a majority; and so the election went to the 
house of representatives. As Clay stood fourth on the 
list he was not eligible, and only three names were ■ 
open to choice in the house. The friends of Clay 
therefore — unable to vote for him — united with the 
friends of Adiims and thus secured the election of the 
latter. The feeling e.xcilcd by this result had a ten- 
dency to widen the breach between the two divisions of 
the Republican party, and before long they became 
opeidy opposing parties. 

191. From the beginning of Mr. Adam's adininistra- Tji" .Vdams 
lion, bolh factions of the defeated parly united in an "j'J,™""'"''*' 
op|)osilicn to the president, which continued tlirough 

his whoLj term of ollice. Adams appointed Clay to the 
leading position in his cabinet, and at once the charge 
was made that Ailams and Cla}' had formed a corrupt 
bargain, in which the latter had agreed to cast his in- 
fluence in fav.ir of Adams, in return for which Clay 
should receive tlie position of secretary of state, which 
was then usually considered as the stepping-stone to 
the presidency. This imputation was indignantly de- 
nied by Clay, but the cry of "bargain and intrigue" 
was kept up until Adams rctiretl from the pre-idency 
at the end of his four years of otlice. In the first year 
of his administration, the South American states, 
which had now become independent, proposed to Hold Tlic 
a congress at Panama, to considl upon matters of in- ''^"''"f^^ 
leresl common to the whole of America. They invited 
the United States to send delegates. President Adams 
accepted the invitation in behalf of the uidon. Con- 
gress, however, after a stormy debate, refused to send 
delegates. It was claimed that these South American 
states had abolished slavery, that they were near 
neighbors to the south, that they might include Cuba, 
which was still a part of Spain, make the island inde- 
pendent, and free the slaves there. The whole scheme 
was fraught therefore with danger to the slave states, 
and was rejected. The slave states were strong sup- 
porters of the doctrine of stale sovereignty. They 
held that the states were independent of one another 
and of the federal government, a doctrine which had 
been held from the beginning of the union. The inde- 
pendent power of the state was a safeguard against too 
great a power in the central irovernment. 

192. The first tariff act of 1789 involved the idea of Prnicctive 
protection to home manufactures. The duties, however, ""■''^''• 
ranged only from 7 J to 10 per cent., averaging about 8^ 
percent. The .system, too, which was introduced by 
Hamilton, seemed to be rather for political than 
economic purposes. Up to the passage of the tariff 

act, the laying of duties had been controlled by the 
stales. The possibility of secession among the states 
in which the state-rights feeling was strong, was a 
feature that every statesman had to take into account. 
Hamilton wished to establish the new Federal govern- 
ment as firmly as possible, and his object in the tariff 
system seems to have been to create a class of manu- 
facturers, runningthrough all theslates, but dependent 
for prosperity on tlu; Federal government and its tariff. 
This would be astrong factor in support of the govern- 
ment against any attempt at secession, or any tendency 



UNITED STATES 



Tariff 
of 1816. 



Tariff 
of 1824. 



to return to the old system of control by State legisla- 
ture. The war of 1812 had made it dilflcult to obtain 
manufactured goods from abroad, and many needed 
articles had begun to be made in the United States. 
After the war was over, American manufacturers wished 
to continue their business, but as they could not com- 
pete successfully with English manufactured goods, a 
higher protective tariff was thought necessary. In 
1816 a tariff was instituted which imposed a duty of 
about twenty-five per cent, on imported cotton and 
woolen goods, and specific duties on iron imports. The 
English manufacturers made far more cloth than could 
could be used in England alone, and they sold it to 
other countries. They could make the cloth better and 
more cheaply than itcould be madeintheUniledStates. 
The people of the United States, therefore, would 
prefer to buy it of England rather thanof theAmerican 
manufacturers. Now England had established herself 
in India, and received at first most of her cotton from 
that country. She wished to favor her own merchants, 
who brought the cotton from India, and therefore she 
laid a tax upon the cotton from the southern states. 
Then the south began to send her cotton to the north, 
where they could sell it without paying duties, and 
favored a heavy duty on all cotton goods brought from 
England. By this means they thought, that Northern 
manufacturers could make up their cotton into goods 
which would cost the buyers less than English goods of 
the same kind. They reasoned thus; If the cotton haa 
to travel across the Atlantic, pay a tax there, be made 
into cloth, cross the Atlantic again, and then pay a 
heavy duty at the customhouse, it will cost the mer- 
chant who buys it so much that he when he sells it he 
must ask a higher price than for the cloth made perhaps 
in the next town to him. So the customer will buy the 
native cloth. This tariff on European goods, therefore, 
was called a protective tariff, because it was intended 
to protect the American planter and manufacturer. At 
first the northern people <'id not favor it. Their 
business was much more in ships than in mills; 
and if the tariff prevented the importation of Euro- 
pean goods, their vessels would not be of much 
use. 

193. There was nothing new in the principle of the 
protective tariff. As has been shown, Hamilton had 
urged it at the beginning of the government, and it 
was the method used by many countries for the protec- 
tion of their own industries. But the tariff of 1816 in 
the United States came at a time when it had a marked 
effect in the history of the people. If the United States 
could manufacture itsown goods from its own products, 
and sell them to its own citizens, then one part of the 
country would help another, and the whole union 
would prosper together. Thus the tariff fell into its 
place as one of the plans adopted by the country when 
it settled down to the work of possessing the land and 
improving it. But as time went on, the south, which 
had at first favored a protected tariff to ensure the sale 
of her cotton, now began to oppose any further increase 
of duties on foreign goods. Thus in 1822. a proposition 
for making the tariff more protective was defeated by 
the southern section in Congress. The tariff of 1824 
was adopted by very small majorities. It was an 
advance on all preceding tariffs in its consistent design 
of excluding foreign competing goods from American 
markets. It was passed" by the northern members, 
except those from the northeast, against the almost 
unanimous vote of the southern members, who consid- 
ered it unconstitutional, sectional, and unjust. In 
1828, the Protectionists, as those who favored a high 
protective tariff were now called, succeeded, after a 
debate of six weeks, in passing another tariff bill 
which was so protective as to be satisfactory to manu- 
facturers but very objectional to the southern states, 
where it was pronounced a legalized robbery. From 
this time, the nullification doctrines of the Kentucky 



resolutions of 1799 began to gain strength rapidly in 
the south. 

194. In the presidential canvass of 1828, the two fac- 
tions of the great Republican party now assumed the 
character of two distinct and opposite parties. The 
supporters of Jackson assumed the name of Democrats, 
while the opposition, which favored the re-election of 
Adams, were known at first as National Republicans. 
But in the course of Jackson's administration, as they 
saw fit to represent him as a kind of a tyrant like 
George III, they assumed the name of Whigs; and 
henceforth, until 1854, Whig and Democrat were the 
names of the two great political parties in the United 
States. Without entering into a detailed history of 
these parties and their principles, it may be said in 
general that the questions which have divided them 
have been concerned with the powers of the national 
government. The WJiigs wished to give the Federal 
government the power to use the public money in the 
making of roads, improving rivers and harbors, etc., 
under the general head of Internal Improvements; the 
Democrats claimed that these things ought to be done 
by the states or by private enterprise. The Whigs es- 
poused the policy of laying duties on imports as hiijh 
as revenue results would approve; within this limit the 
duties were to be defined for purposes of protection ; 
and the superabundant revenues were to be expended 
on internal improvements. This was known as the 
"American system." This policy was opposed by the 
Democrats, but not always intelligently. The Whigs 
also favored the continuance of the national bank 
which had been chartered in 1816. The Democrats 
strongly opposed it, and on the question they achieved 
a complete and decisive victory under President Tyler. 
On the question of internal improvements, however, 
the opposite still holds the ground, but most of its de- 
tails have been settled by the great development of the 
powers of private enterprise during the past sixty 
years, and it is not at present a leading question. The 
question of the tariff, however, remains to-day as a 
"burning question," but it is no longer argued on 
grounds of constitutional law, but on grounds of polit- 
ical economy. 

195. In the presidential canvass of 1828 Jackson was 
elected president, with John C. Calhoun as vice-presi- 
dent, and on March 4 they were sworn into office. 
The eight following years have been called "the reign 
of Andrew Jackson," from the arbitrar}' methods which 
he seemed to assume in regard to money affairs in his 
administration. One of the greatest mistakes of the 
president was the use of government offices as rewards 
for his friends and adherents. As early as the begin- 
ning of the present century a vicious system was 
growing up in New York and Pennsylvania. In those 
states the appointive offices came to be used as bribes 
or as rewards for partisan services. By securing votes 
for a successful candidate, a man with little in his 
pocket and nothing particular to do, could obtain some 
ofHce with a comfortable salary. It would be given 
him as a reward for political services, and some other 
man, more competent than himself, would have to be 
turned out in order to make room for him. A more 
effective method of driving "good citizens" out of 
politics could hardly have been devised. The result 
was that the civil service of those states was seriously 
damaged in quality, politics degenerated into a wild 
scramble for office, salaries were paid to men who did 
little orno public service in return, and thus the line 
which separates taxation from robbery was often 
crossed. About the same time the idea obtained that 
there is something especially democratic, and therefore 
meritorious, about "rotation in office." Government 
offices were regarded as plums at which everyone 
ought to be allowed a chance to bite. The way was 
prepared in 1820 by W. II. Crawford, of Georgia, who 
succeeded in getting the law enacted which limits the 



Wliigs and 
Democrats, 



The 

"Americai 

System." 



Andrew 
Jackson 
president. 



Origin of 
the "spoils 
system." 



"Rotation 
in office." 



U ^' i T K I) S T A '1' K S 



terms of oflico for postmasters, revenue collectors a;ul 
olher servants of tlie Feileral goverumeiil to four 
years. The importaiue of this measure was not under- 
stooil, anil it excited very Utile discussion at the time. 
After Jackson oljlained the presidency the methods of 
New York and Pennsylvania were applied on a national 
scale. Jackson cherished the absuril belief that the 
administration of his predecessor Adams had been 
corrupt, and he accordingly turned men out of otliee 
with a keen zest. During the forty years between 
Wa.shington's tirst inauguration and Jackson's the total 
number of removals from otliee was seventy fc^ur, and 
out of this number live were defaulters. During the 
first year of Jackson's administration the number of 
changes made in the civil service was said to be 3.000. 
The Such was the abrupt inauguration upon the broadest 

t"«'n°' nuid' ''"■'•'^''^ "^ ''"' so-called "spoils system." Tlu' phrase 
naUonal. "originated with W. L. Marey, of New York, who in a 
speech in the senate in ISiil declared that "to the 
victors belong the spoils." The author of the phrase 
did not of course realize that he was making one of 
the most infamous remarks recorded in history, and 
Jackson doubtless would have been greatly surprised 
could he have foreseen that he was introducing a 
gigantic system of political knavery and corruption, 
wiiich would help sustain all manner of abominations, 
from grasping monopolies and civic jobbery down to 
political rum shops. 
Thcl'nitcd 196. Jackson made another mistake which, however. 
Siaii-a ^^jj trivial compared with the adoption of the spoils 
■ sy-tem. He was bitterly opposed to the United States 
bank because he believed that it was unauthorized by 
the constitution and a means of political corruption. 
As the charter was about to expire in 18:i0 he urged 
Congress not to renew it. An angry controversy fol- 
lowed. A bill renewing the charter passed in 1SS2. but 
Jackson vetoed it. Subsequently he recommended 
that the pidjlic money should be removed from the 
bank, and when Congress refused to consent to this 
measure he took the responsibility of ordering the 
secretary of the treasury to remove it (18;i;i). a measure 
which, at first, was followed by great distress among 
merchants. It was in this quarrel that the supporters 
of the bank became known as Whigs, while the 
partisans of the president kept the old name of Demo- 
crats. The bank was finally closed in 1830 when its 
charter expired. 
Indian 107. In 1832 hostilities with the Sac and Fox tribes 

troubles, of Indians broke out in what is now Wisconsin. Their 
c!iief. Hlack Hawk, was captured, ana the Indians were 
removed beyond the Mississippi. Georgia wished to 
get rid of the Creeks and Cherokecs remaining within 
the state; but they refused to go. The United States 
had made treaties with them and these treaties ac- 
knowledged the right of the Indians to the land which 
they held. They were more civilized than the Indians 
in general and had furms which they cultivated. A few 
of their chiefs were persuaded to sign a new treaty 
with Georgia, giving up their lands. The other In- 
dians at once put them to death; they declared that 
these chiefs had no authority to sign for the tribes, and 
that in consequence there was no treaty. (4eorgia 
would not wait for the Indians to yield but ordered a 
survey of their lands to be made for settlement by the 
whites. It must be remembered that although the ter- 
ritory was within the boundaries of Georgia it was yet 
distinctly under the control of the Indians by agree- 
ment with the United States. The federal government 
was very desirous of getting the Indians out of Georgia. 
and tried every means to persuade them to leave, and 
accordingly in a tacit manner suffered the slate to 
crowd tiie Indians out. It was no less true that the 
state was taking to itself a power which belonged to 
the union. The wrangle over the Indians began in the 
administration of John (Juincy Adams, and continued 
after Andrew Jackson was chos n president. Jackson 



had no love for the Indians, having fought them all his 
life, and he did not now interfere. Georgia had her own 
way, and the doctrine of state sovereignty was more 
firmly held than ever. 

198. At this time the southern people felt themselves Nallifica- 
to be Virginians, Carolinians, Georgians, rather than "°°' 
American citizens. They were brought up through 

this feeling of undue loyalty to their native states to 
have a secondary regard for the national union, and be- 
cause possessed of an institution which they were anx- 
ious to maintain, they were necessarily fearful of the in- 
tluence of an entirely free government. Since slavery 
could be sustained only by state law, in opposiliim to 
the spirit of the age, the state must be made so sover- 
eign as to be able to withstand all national interl'erence. 
To make sure of this result at the time now before us, 
some of thi^ prominent soutlierners met on a certain oc- 
casion to try tile temper of President Jackson by an 
attempted dcliaiuu^ of ilie national authorily. Hut the 
indignant and determined response of the president 
checked for a moment their designs, few men daring 
any longer to follow to their ultimate conclusions the 
teachings of the great southern leader, John C. Cal- 
houn; and so, for nearly two years, but little opposition 
was openly undertaken. Calhoun, however, never 
ceased his plotting; and in 18;iii, such had been the 
progress of his plans, that he deemed him-elf strong 
enough to carrj' his state-rights doctrine triumphantly 
through, in spite of the known hostility of the patriotic 
Jackson. Congress, as will be remembered, had en- 
acted a tarifl' of a -nixed character, mainly for revenue, 
but incident -i'ly pi'otecting some of the manufacturing 
interests of thi; northern states; and among the articles 
thus protec'dd were coarse woolen goods, which were 
used in the south as clothing for its slaves. The price 
of those articles was thus made a trille higher than it 
would have been without thisiirotection; and the slave 
holders, always a unit for the state-rights doctrine, had 
to pay this higher price. The north was all the while 
under the same tarill, paying an increased price for cot- 
ton on every yard of imported cloth. This was not 
considered by the south, and so in \H.i'i, a state conven- 
tion in South Carolina declared the tariff acts unconsti- 
tutional, and therefore null and void, and resolved that 
any attempt to collect the <luties at any port in that 
state should be resisted by force of arms. Preparations 
were also made to take South (jarolinaout of the union. 
"Nullification" was the name given to this act by which 
the state declared certain laws of the general govern- 
ment to have no force in her territory 

199. The Ist of F(^bruary, IS.'i'i, in case Congress did 
not repeal its protective system prior to that date, was 
fixed upon as the limit of the state's forbearance; for 
after that day. South Carolina, in the event of the non- 
compliance of the United States with her sovereign 
pleasure, was to consider herself as forming no part of 
the Federal union. All she desired, she said, if her 
demands were refused, was "to be let alone," when 
she would proceed to govern herself, according to the 
alleged Jeflersonian doctrine, as an independent state. 
The excitement was intense all over the union. 'Web- 
ster was in the senate and General Jackson in the presi- 
dential chair, and they worked together, though op- 
posite in their party connections, like twin brothers, for 
the salvation of their common country. Webster 
pleaded for the union, claiming that the constitution 
was not a "compactof states," but a "nation," created 
by the whole people for their collective government 

and benefit. In the course of controversy in the sen- Webster 
ate, he held his famousdebate with Mr Ilayne. lasting and Hayno. 
for several days, and presented the arguments against 
the right of secession with an eloquence and force 
never equalled in any discussion on that question. 
President Jackson firmly believed that the states should 
manage their own alTairs but he also held that when 
laws were passed in Congress for the whole country. 



UNITED STATES 



Specie 
circular. 



Martin 
Van Buren 
president. 



The panic 
of 1837. 



The sub- 
treasury 
eystem. 



no one state had a liglit to refuse obedience to such 
iaws. He dechired that "the Federal union must and 
shall be preserved," and sent an armed fleet to Charles- 
ton harbor, warning South Carolina at once that, if t>he 
resisted, the whole force of the union would be used 
against her. For a while it looked as if there would 
be a resort to arms, but Claj', who was the leader of 
the Protectionists, came forward and proposed a com- 
promise by which the tariff was modified. South 
Carolina had won her point. The doctrine of nullifica- 
tion had not been put to the test of arms; but the doc- 
trine of state .-sovereignty had established itself more 
firmly at the south. 

'MO. After the fall of the United States bank many 
state banks had been formed, often with little capital, 
to supply the expected need of paper money. These 
banks issued notes which were largely used in the pur- 
chase of public lands from the United States, and the 
treasury was accumulating paper currency of doubtful 
value- Soon after Congress had adjourned, the presi- 
dent directed the secretary of the treasury to issue the 
so-called specie circular, ordering tbe United States 
agents to receive in future only gold and silver in pay- 
ment for lands. The demand for specie at once became 
pressing, and could only be met by the banks in which 
the revenue was deposited. Other banks fell into dif- 
ficulties which culminated ill the great "panic of 1837.'' 
which took place under Martin Van Buren's admin- 
istration. General Jackson having served two terms, 
was succeeded by Mr. Van Buren, who became presji- 
dent on March 4, 1837. The administration of Mr. 
Van Buren (1837-41) was occupied chiefly with efforts 
to remedj' the commercial disasters of the nation. The 
new presiderkt had taken Jackson's cabinet, and had 
declared his purpose "to follow in the footsteps of his 
illustrious preciecessor." He, therefore, caught the 
first full effects of the storm produced by Jackson's 
financial polic}', from which even Jackson's popularity 
and admitted honesty would hardly Lave saved him. 
A spirit of reckless spcculali(m had been excited by 
the e.xcessive amount of paper money in circulation, 
and property had acquired a fictitious value. Most of 
the banks which were not lucky enough to have gov- 
ernment deposits at command went down under the 
specie circular of 1836. The "pet banks" which had 
received the deposits of the public money, had used 
them as loans to business men, and now, when a 
sudden demand for those deposits was made, many of 
these banks also were involved in tbe general ruin. 
The sudden calling in of these loans was the beginning 
of this famous panic of 1837, the counterpart of which 
had never before been seen in the United States. Early 
in May the banks of New Yor!j city refused to pay 
gold or silver for their notes, and the Kew York legisla- 
ture authorized a suspension of specie payments 
throughout the state for one year. This was followed 
at once by the suspension of banks in other cities. 
The president by proclamation (May 15) called an extra 
session of Congress, to met September 4, and consider 
and secure the financial interests of the government. 
Meanwhile the panic continued during the summer of 
1837, causing widespread ruin among banks, corpora- 
tions and business men, and violently reducing nominal 
fortunes to far less than their real value. 

201. Finally, after some vicissitudes, the financial 
difficulties of the nation were satisfactorily adjusted by 
the adoption of one phase of the National Bank ques- 
tion, that of the so-called sub-treasury system which 
was ultimately established in 1846 and has been in force 
ever since. By this system the public revcnus are not 
deposited in any bank, but are paid over on demand to 
the treasury department by the collectors, who are re- 
quired to give bonds for the proper discharge of their 
duty. The establishment of this system was creditable 
to Van Buren's administration, but the country was 
not prosperous during his term of office, and he was 



defeated as a candidate for re-e.ection (1840) after a re- 
markably exciting canvas. The Whigs relying upon 
the same kind of popular feeling which had elected 
Jackson, again put in nomination the plain soldier, 
Harrison, who had been Van Buren's opponent in the 
preceding canvas, and who had lived in a log cabin and 
had hard cider on bistable. In the famous "hard The 'hard 
cider campaign" of 1840, Harrison won a sweeping ^'^.^ '^'"°' 
victory, obtaining 234 electoral votes to Van Buren's 
60. John Tyler, of Virginia, a Democrat in politics, 
was elected vice-president. The election of Tyler was 
a political mistake on the part of the Whigs, for in one 
month after bis inauguration. President Harrison died, 
and Tj'ler succeded to the presidency. Thus the 
government had a Democratic head, and the Whigs 
lost, in the main, the fruits of their victory. 

202. Mr Tyler retained Harrison's cabinet, and prom- Tyler's 
ised to carry out his policy. In an extra session of "j'^j™'""'''*" 
Congress beginning May 31, a bill to abolish the sub- 
treasury of the previous administration was passed by 

both houses, which now had a Whig majority, and 
was signed by the president. Both houses then passed 
a bill to incorporate the fiscal bank of the United 
States. Many of the objectionable features of the old 
United States bank had been discarded; but the measure 
still met with great disfavor among the Democrats. 
The bill was vetoed by the president. He stated as his 
objection, that the powers given to the bank were such 
as he and the majority of the people believed to be un- 
wise and unconstitutional to grant. An effort was 
made to pass the bill over the veto by a two-thirds 
vote, but it failed. The Whig leaders then requested 
the president to present them with an outline of a bill 
which he would be willing to sign. After consultation 
with the cabinet it was given, and passed by both 
houses. The president vetoed this bill also. A two- 
thirds vote could not be obtained to p iss it over the 
veto. This action of the president in vetoing a bill 
which had been drawn according to his own sugges- 
tions, roused the indignation of of the Whigs who had 
elected him, and all his cabinet resigned. Daniel 
Webster, however, the secretary of state, retained 
office long enough to finish a negotiation with Great 
Britain for the settlement of a dispute regarding the 
northwestern boundarj'. 

203. The northwestern corner of North America down Oregon. 
to the parallel of 54° 40', now known as the territory of 
Alaska, then behmged to Russia. The region known 

as Oregon, which lay between Russian America and 
California, was claimed by the United States on the 
ground of the discoveries of Lewis and Clarke. After 
the second war witli England, when both countries 
claimed this region, it was agreed in 1818 that they 
should hold it jointly for ten years. The Hudson Bay 
Company, which was fully equipped for the fur trade, 
increased its stations. At the end of ten years it seemed 
to have almost entire possession. In 1828 it was agreed 
to continue the joint occupation until notice of its 
termination should be given by one nation or the other. 
When this agreement was renewed St. Louis was the 
great center of the fur trade of the west. Expeditions 
from that point into tbe disputed territory soon 
became common. The hunters brought back word of 
the fine farming and grazing lauds which they had 
seen, and parties of emigrants began to make settle- 
ments in that direction. The Hudson Bay Company 
put every possible obstacle in the way of immigration, 
as they had wished to keep the country for hunting and 
trapping. They managed to create the impTession in 
the United States that the Rocky Mountains could not 
be crossed by wagons, antl that the country on the other 
side was a barren wilderness. In 1836. Dr. Marcus 
Whitman was sent out with a company of missionaries 
to the Oregon Indians. He was a man of energy and fore- 
sight. He saw that it was practicable for emigrant 
trains to cross the mountains by good passes, ard he 



TJX 1 T El) S ^1' A T K S 



"Fifty-four 
forty or 
tight." 



Dorr's 
rebellion. 



Opposition 
to slttvery. 



The aboli- 
tionists. 



Mob 
N.olencc. 



knew that if he couki make this j^cneniUy Itnown the 
people of the United States would soon occupy the 
country. 

204. When Lord Ashburton came in 1842 to settle 
■with Mr. Webiiter the boundry line between the British 
pos9cssion.s and the United States, the Hudson Bay 
Company had .succeeded in keepinjj out almost all 
Aiiierieaii emigranta. They had laid llu-ir plans also 
to l)ring in Eufrlish settlers from the Ked river country, 
80 as to strenjithen the Uritish claim to all Oregon. As 
Boon as Dr. Whitman learned this, he set out in October 
of that year, and made his way across tlie entire con- 
tinent to Washington. There he found that a treaty 
had been signe<l, but tiiat Oregon had been left out of 
consideration alloijether. l)i\ Wliilruau's errand was 
to make known to the adininistratiim at Washingl<m 
the value of Oregon, and then to organize comiianies 
of emigrants to settle within its bounds. He diii both. 
In the following summer he had a great body of set- 
tlers over the mmmtaius, and at the close of 1844 there 
were three thousand Americans in Oregon. The 
people were fast deciding the question of ownership. 
Congress now took up the nnitter in earnest. The 
American people claimed the whole western territory, 
and (he Democrats went into the ne.xt presidential cam- 
paign with the alternative war-cry "Fifty-four, forty, 
or tight," meaning that the parallel of 54° 40' must be 
made the northern boundary. But the wiser men were 
ready to compromise, and a treaty was made with 
Great Britain in 1840. by which the forty ninth parallel 
was made the tlividing line west of the Hocky 
MounIaii:8. 

20."). In 1842 an affair known as "Dorr's Rebellion" 
oecurred in Rhode Island. Thestate was still governed 
under the old colonial charter, and a party led by 
Thomas Dorr was anxious to exchange it for a new 
constilutiim giving greater power to the people. Dorr 
assumed to be governor by the voles of his partisans; 
the lawful governor, imder the charter, called for the 
assistance of the United States, and civil war was im- 
minent, when President Tyler sent troops into the 
state to uphold the old government. Dorr was con- 
victed of treason and sentenced to imiirisonment for 
life, but he was soon pardoned, and a more liberal con- 
stitution was afterward adopted. 

200. Calhoun was steadily teaching the southern 
states that their safety lay in the doctrine of state sov- 
ereignty, and the slaveholders were beginning to think 
that the union was not worth much to tliem unless it 
protected the slave system. Meanwhile, a very dlirer- 
eiit belief was becoming common in the north, which 
was largely due to the influence of William IJoyd Gar- 
rison, of Massachusetts. He had established a weekly 
paper in 1831, called The lAheratur, which was dirvoted 
to the entire and immediate abolition of African slavery 
in America. Many others, men and women, came for- 
ward to support him, and in KSii;! the National Anti- 
Slavery Society had been formed, and its branches had 
multiplied rapidly. The renewal of the slavery ques- 
tion alarmed the southern people and also many of the 
northern people, who considered an)' attack upon slav- 
crj' dangerous to the peice of the union. From this 
timedates Iheexistence of the party opposed to slavery 
in the United Slates, at first known as abolitionists. 
They did not, however, constitute a political party, but 
as individuals kept up an incessant attack upon the 
evil of slavery. They were persecuted in every way 
possible, but every attempt to intimidate them only 
g:\ve a new opportunity for the discussion of the rights 
and wrongs of the slave. The slaveholders and tlieir 
friends at the north declared that the aboliiionists were 
destroying the peace of the country, and charged them 
with inciting the slaves to insurrc'ction. Hence they 
called upon all friends of the union to put them down. 
Finally mob violence was reported to it Boston and 
other northern cities to destroy aholili-in "rinting 



presses, break up abolition meetings and silence aboli 
lion orators. 

207. These lawless outrages only served to fire the P"'^"''"""'*' 
zeal of the abolitionists, anil they began to oiler peli- ^^""ercs.-*- 
tions to Congress to aoolish slavery in the District of 
Columbia, while the disseminalion of abolitionist books 

and papers was greatly increased in every part of the 
country. Congress in l.sii,") had resolved to lay all fut- 
ure petitions on the subject of slavery up<m the table. 
In 18;i6 the presidents message to Congress made indig- 
nant reference to the practice of sending abolition doc- 
uments through the United States mail. He recom- 
mended a bill to i)rohibit the practice in futuie. Ac- 
cor<lingly, a bill was introduced in Congress, jiroliibit- 
ing any postmaster from knowingly imtling any aboli- 
tion docuuienls or newspapers into the mails. TIh' bill 
was rejected. The right of petition ims been a right 
always held sacri'd by the people, and a champion for 
this right appeared in .lolin (iuiney Adams, who had 
been sent back to Washington as a representative from 
his district in M:-.ssachusetls. He presented these jieti- 
tions again and again. The slavery party refused to 
admit them, and in consec|uence multitudes of [leople 
at llie north were gaii"'d over to the anli slavery side. 

208. The political parties had not yet openly divided 
o'l the (|Uestion of slavery, but the opposition to the 
Democratic party had become firmer, which resulted, 
as has been shown, in the formation of the Whig party 
(1830). Since Missouri had been admitted into the 
union two other states had been formeil, Arkansas in ^'■'f^?"' 
183(5 and Michigan in 1837. Half of the states were g|;;;. ""^ 
now free states and half slave. But in population the 

free states were rapidly gaining on the slave slates. 
In 1830 they exceeded them by over a million; in 1840 
the excess was nearly two and a half millions. More- 
over, after the admission of Arkansas, Florida was the 
only territory which could be admitted as a slave state, 
whereas the north had still a vast space westward at 
its command. To S(mlhern statesmen it seemed likely 
that the north would prcsentlj' far exceed the south in 
territory, population, wealth and political power and 
would steadily gain a majority in the senate and the 
house. It was, thi^efore, [irobable that before long the 
norlh would come to control the action of Congress, 
and might then try to abolish slavery. This the south 
naturally dreaded, and this feeling of dread was inten- 
sified and exasperated by the abolitionist agitation. 
The only safeguard for the south seemed to be the ac- 
quisition of fresh territory, and southern statesmen 
looked for this to the great country of Texas, which 
lay south of 3()° 30', was suited to the iustiiution of 
slavery and was already occupied by many southerners. 

209. Texas was originally a part of \he Spanish Am ■xMiiom 
province of Mexico. In 1^21 M<'xico revolted from "'^ ''''"'■ 
Spain, and formed a rejiublic moulded after the Unitetl 

Stales. Like other Spanish stales in America it abol- 
ished slavery. The south thus had for its neighbor a 
free country hemming it in on the south and south- 
west. Presidents John (^uincy Adams and .laekson 
each bad made the attempt to buy Texas from Mexico, 
but slie had refused to sell. Meanwhile emigration 
h.id set in from the southwestern states, and many 
Americans had made their home in Texas. The most 
noted of these was General Sam Houston, the leader 
of an adventurous set of men. At his instigation 
Texas rebelled against Mexican rule, and, in the de- 
cisive battle of San Jacinto (183()i, won her independ- 
ence an<l set tip a government of her own wilh Hous- 
ton at the head. Texas tlu-n applied for admission to 
the union. The importance of such an addition was 
seen at once. Out of this vast territory five states 
could be formed. If slave states they would greatly 
strenghen the slavery party. The whigs, under Web- 
ster anil Clay, opposeil annexalitm on the ground that 
it would bring on a war wilh Mexico, which had not 
acknowledged the independence of Texas. The ques- 



UNITED STATES 



tion of annexation was hotly discussed in the presiden- 
tial election of 1844. Van Buren, who had opposed 
annexation, was rejected by the democratic party, and 
James K. Polls, of Tennessee, who favored annexation, 
was nominated. The whig candidate was Henry Clay; 
and there was a third candidate, which decided the re- 
sult of the election. The abolitionists had put forward 
James Birney as a presidential candidate in 1840, who 
had received very few votes. They now nominated 
him again. A close and bitter contest followed. The 
democratic party was committed to the annexation of 
Texas, although the demand for the tariff of 1842, and 
for "the whole of Oregtm or none, with or without 
war with England" helped to gain votes. Nevertheless 
the success of the Whigs seemed probable, until the 
weakness of Clay's moral fibre ruined it. He wrote a 
letter in which he tried to conciliate southern Demo 
crats by saying that he would be "glad to see" the an- 
nexation take place at some future time. By this 
device he won no democratic votes, for Polk was a 
warm advocate of annexation, but angered a great 
many anti-slavery Whigs, who purposely threw away 
on Birney their votes, by which means New York was 
carried for Polk, and he was elected president. It was 
the most closely contested election in the history of the 
United States, except those of 1800, 1876 and 1884. The 
result in fourteen of the twenty-six states was doubtful 
for some days, and most of these chose Polk electors 
by very slender majorities. In several of them the 
small abolition vote would have turned the scale and 
chosen Clay electors. Thus Polk was elected, and, in 
December, 184.5, Texas was annexed by resolution of 
Congress, and admitted into the imion (December, 
1845) with the understanding that it might be hereafter 
divided, so as to make several slave states. Florida 
had already been admitted as a state in March of the 
same year. In spite of the strong opposition to the 
annexation by the anti-slavery party there was a gen- 
eral feeling of pride that the country had acquired so 
large an addition to its domain. Politicians in favor 
of annexation did their best to draw the popular mind 
away from the question of slavery, and to hold out 
splendid prospects of the rapidly increasing United 
States. Tbey began to aver that it was the "manifest 
destiny" of the nation to possess the whole continent. 
But the slavery question could not be held in abey- 
ance. Wiih the election of Polk the north and south 
were finally arrayed in opposition to each other. The 
policy of the Democratic party now began to be shaped 
chiefly by the adherents of Calhoun, the representa- 
tives of slavery and nullification, though the latter 
political heresy was not likely to be pushed to the 
front so long as the control of the federal government 
was in their hands; but the slavery question became 
the "burning question" from that time on until it was 
decided by the civil war. 
Tie Mrxi- 210. When Texas was annexed to the United States, 
CUM war. Mexico was so occupied with intestine dissensions and 
revolution that her exhibition of resentment was atfirst 
confined to a formal protest, and the withdrawal of her 
minister from Washington. No aggressive movement 
was made by her even when the United States troops 
under General Taylor occupied the east bank of the 
Nueces river, a part of the slate which Mexico insisted 
had never belonged to Texas. In the meantime, in an- 
ticipation of trouble, a naval expedition had been sent 
by the American government to the gulf, DecemberSl, 

1845, and an act passed extending the Uhited States 
revenue system over the doubtful territory beyond the 
Nueces river, to carry out which a revenue officer was 
appointed to reside in the new district. Even then 
Mexico did not institute hostilities, but expressed her 
willingness to negotiate concerning the disputed terri- 
tory between the Nueces and the Rio Grande. In March, 

1846, General Taylor was ordered by the president to 
advance from the J^"«^es to the Rio Grande, and oc- 



cupy the debatable district. These measures, adopted 
by the president, by which our troops crossed the 
boundary claimed by Mexico, were considered by a 
large portion of the people of the United States as im- 
politic, if not unjust, and the occupation of a territory 
by our troops, which at least was a subject of dispute, 
was deemed by many a belligerent act. General 
Ampudia so considered it, and notified the American 
general to retire beyond the Nueces within twenty-four 
hours. In April General Arista superseded Ampudia in 
command, and communicated to Taylor that he con- 
sidered hostilities commenced. Early in May Arista, 
with 6 000 Mexicans, crossed the Rio "Grande, attacked. 
General Taylor with his force of 2,300 at Palo Alto, and 
was badly defeated. The next day Taylor assunied the 
offensive, attacked Arista at Resaca de la Palma, and 
compelli'd him to retreat in haste across the Rio Giande. 

811. The United States government, bef^ •re it could War 
hear of these actions, declared war again? t Mexico '''^'^''"'^''• 
(May 13, 1846), and called for 50,000 vokinii-ei-s. Mex- 
ico likewise declared war against the United Slates for 
interfering in her affairs with Texas. Soon after the 
declaration of war. Colonel Stephen W. Kearnej' was 
ordered to lead an expedition into New Mexico for the E.tpcditioi 
purpose of separating that province from Mexico. jjj.jip™ 
Leaving Bent's Fort, he followed what was known as 
the Santa Fe trail, along the Arkansas river, across the 
Colorado mountains to the Rio Grande, and down that 
river to Santa Fe. Here he took possession of tlie coun- 
try in the name of the United States, declaring New 
Mexico a territory of the Union, and left a governor 
and some troops. Then he set off for California, to 
carry out the same design of separating a Mexican 
province from t"e Republic of Mexico and attaching it 
to the United States. Before war was declared Captain 

John C. Fremont was sent on an exploring expedition J^''^'?""''" 
. ^ ,.,, . ,-, 1 i, ^1 1 ,. California, 

to California. Some vessels of the navy also were sent 

to the Pacific coast to be in readiness. The United 

States had reason to think that England would make an 

excuse of the Mexican troubles to set up a claim to 

California. Fremont and his men. aided by oflicers of 

the navy with marines, made no delay when they 

learned that war was in progress. They easily took 

possession of one village after another. They expelled 

the Mexican soldiers, and finally seized Monterey, the 

capital of the province. There were a number of 

American settlers there, who pioceeded to declare the 

independence of California and organize a government. 

212. When Colonel Kearney left Santa Fe, he ordered J'^'j^ftf^',',* 
Colonel Doniphan, with about a thousand volunteers, 

to chastise the Navajo Indians. Having performed 
this duty and compelled the savages to make a treaty 
of peace, Doniphan marched a thousand miles to join 
the army in Mexico. At B.'-acito, December 25, 1846, 
he defeated a large force of Mexicans, and near Chihua- 
hua, Fcburary 28, gained a decided victory over an 
army four times as lartre as his own. Finally he reached 
General Wool, at Saltillo. May 22, after a march which 
is considered as one of the most brilliant exploits of the 
war. 

213. In the meantime Taylor had conquered the 
northern portion of Mexico; while Scott, landing at 
Vera Cru?;, advanced and captured the City of Mexico. 
The United States soldiers were victorious over the 
Mexicans wherever they came into conflict, and what- 
soever the disparity of numbers, as instanced in 
Doniphan's victory; while at Buena Vista, February 
23, 1847, Taylor routed a Mexican army more than four 
times greater than his own. To the student of history 
the Mexican war will have great interest, as having 
been the school in which most of our great generals, 
who made their mark in the civil war, received their 
practical training. The capture of the City of Mexico 
(September 14, 1847), put an end to the war. A treaty 
was entered into with Mexico, by which the Rio Grande 
was made the southwestern boundary of the United 



UNIT E D S ^r A T E S 



States, ami the Gila river llie northern bouiuliuv of 
Mexico. The United States paid Mexico $1.5.0UO",000 
for the territory which was thus added to its domain, 
e.xchisiveiif Texas. Five years later, the United States 
houfili*. the Mesilla valley, s 'iilh of the (ilia river, for 
$10.000,1100. General .lames Gadsden was the agent in 
this purchase. liy thevc two cessions Mexico trans- 
ferred lo the United States the country now comprised 
in California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of 
Wyomitiir, Colorado, Kansas, and New Mexico. 

214. Tills immense aciiuisiition of territory, though 
a fortun.ite one in many respects, had an immediate ef- 
fect upon American politics far more disturl)ing than 
anything; which had occurred since l!^-0. The general 
sentiments of the anti>lavcry party had been opposed 
to the war, and these sentiments had been fully set 
forth in a series of remarkable political poems entitled, 
Tho Hiu- "The JJiglow Papers, " by James Hussell Lowell. The 
'<>"' f''P'^'* sectional strife which hud been allayed for the time 
being by the Missouri Compromise, now began to be 
renewed. In the new territory accpiired from Mi^xico, 
slavery had been forbidden by the Mexican law, and 
the north desired this prohibition kept in force, but the 
south opposed the idea. It was pro|)osed by some, as 
the simplest johition or the difliculty. to prolong the 
Missouri Compromise line from the Hocky mountains to 
the Pacliic. b\i* neither party was willing to give up so 
much to theother. The increased opposition to slavery 
in the north had created an increased obstinacy in the 
south, so it was rapidly becoming a dilflcult thing to 
effect compromises between the two sections. In 1846, 
David Wilmot, a Democratic member of the house, 
from Pennsylvania, offered an additiim to abill, making 
appropriations for the purchase of the Mexican terri- 
Tlie tory. This addition W!is the celebrated " Wilmot Pro- 

Proviso '"SO," applying to any newly acipiired territory the 
provision of the ordinance of 1787, ' that neither sla- 
very nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any 
part of said territory, except for crime, whereof the 
parly shall be first duly convicted." The Whigs and 
northern Democrats united in favor of the proviso, and 
it passed the house, but was sent to the senate too late to 
be acted upon. 

2' 5. in the same j'ear that peace was made with 
Mexico (1848) came the presidential election. Several 
efforts had been made to pass the Wilmot Proviso, but 
without success, bui it called into existence the Free 
Soil party, formed by the union of anti-slavery Dem- 
ocrats and Whigs with the Abolitionists. As a com- 
promise between the advocates and opi)onents of the 
extension of slavery, a bill had been passed by the 
senate establishing territorial government;: in Oregon, 
New Me.\ico and California, with a provision that 
all questions concerning slavery in those territories 
should be referred to the United States supreme court 
for decision. It was voted for by members from the 
slave states, but lost in the house. A bill was then 
passed in the house, by a sectional vote, to organize 
the territory of Oregon, without slavery. This was 
passed by the senate with an amendment declaring that 
the Missouri Compromise Line extended to the Pacific 
ocean. The amendment was rejected by the house, 
again by p sectional vote, and, the senate withdrawing, 
the bill passed. 

216. The Whig National Convention met at Phila- 
delphia, June 7, 1848, and nominated Zachary Taylor, 
of Louisiana, and Millard Fillmore, of New York. No 
platform was adopted, and resolutions affirming the 
Wilmot Proviso as a party princi|)le were repeatedly 
voted down. The Democratic National Convention 
met at Baltimore. May 22. It reviveil the strie' con- 
structionist platform of 1840 and 1S44, and nominated 
Lewis Cass, of Michigan, and William O Huiler. of 
KeJtucky. The National Convention of Frie Soilers 
met at Buffalo, August 9. It adopted a platform de- 
claring that Congress had no more power to make a 



slave than to make a king, and that there should be no 
more slave states and no more slave territories. It 
nominated Martin Van Buren, of New York, and 
Charles Francis Adams, of JIassachusetts. The Free 
Soilers decided the election by drawing the Democratic 
vote from New Y'ork. and so Tuylor became president. 
He was brave, honest and shrewd, and by far the ablest 
president betwe<;n Jackson and Lincoln. Though a 
Louisiana slaveholder, he was unflinching in his devo- 
tion to the union. 

217. The leading political struggle during Taylor's Califoral*. 
adiiiinistration related chietly to the admission of Cal- 
ifornia as a state in the union. Texas was the last 

slave state. The tide of emigration was moving 
steadily westward and northwestward. In 1840 Iowa 
was admitted into the union, and in 1848 Wisconsin. 
While the representatives of the people in Congress 
were strnggling with the question of free or slave ter- 
ritory, the people themselves were rapidly increasing 
the influence of the free states. In the yenr that Cal- 
ifornia became the properly of the United States (1848) 
golil was discovered in the valley of the S tcramento, 
and a very hasty exploration showed that there was an 
immense deposit of the precious metal in the newly 
acquired territory. The news spread all over the 
world and immediately there followed a great rush to 
the gold region. In a little over a year the iiopulpiion 
had become large enough to entitle it to admission to 
the union, and there was need of a strong government 
to keep in check the numerous hordes of rullians who 
had Hocked in along with honest people. President 
Taylor was eager to bring California into the union 
before the question of slavery in that territory sluuild 
be discussed in Congress. He urged the peojile to call 
a convention and organize a state. Tliey did this 
(1849), and since they were almost wholly from the 
north, they framed a constituticm |irohibiting slavery, 
andapplied foradmission. Thesouth earnestly opposed 
the admission of California as a free state, and the 
extreme southern party even took soine steps toward 
secession. The debates were conducted on both sides 
with great bitterness. 

218. The controversy went on for a year, until it was 
settled by a group of compromise measures devioed by 
Clay, who thirty years before had succeeded so well 

with his Missouri Compromise. He proposed that clay'B corn- 
California should be admitted as a free slate ; that any i'rciiiiscB. 
new slates properly formed from Texas should also be 
admitted; that the territories of New Mexico and Utah 
should be organized without the Wilmot I'roviso (/. e., 
with squatter sovereignty, by which the people of 
each leiritory were left free to settle the (juestion of 
ihe existence of slavery for themselves); that the slave 
trade should be abolished in the District of Cohunbia, 
and especially that a more rigid fugitive slave law tiic 
should be enacted. The constitution expressly gave to fugitive 
slave-holders the right to' recover their slaves if they "'""^ '*"• 
escaped into another state, but the increasing hostility 
of the people in Ihe free states to the slavery system 
made it extremely difficult for slaveholders to find and 
recover runaway slaves when they had escaped into 
the northern states. This matter was one of great 
irritation to the southerners. They complained that they 
were deprived of their rights in direct opposition to 
the constitution. The new fugitive slave law was 
therefore so drawn as lo require the arrest, by United 
States officers, of fugitive slaves in the northern slates, 
and it also gave the officers the rii,'bt to call upon any 
citizen to help them in their seiircb and capture. The 
law also impossed penalties on all rescuers and denied 
them a jury trial. 

219. W<'hster gave his support to the Compromise of '^5'!^!',°' 
1850. Like many others, he viewed with alarm the [ " '^""'" 
growing dinsensions between the two sections of the 
country. He worked with all his might to preserve 
the Union against the attacks of th" extreme pro- 



, tlic- coni- 
I)rorai8e. 



UNITED STATES 



Personal 

liberty 

laws. 



Fillmore 
preeident. 



Develop- 
ment of the 
country. 



The 
telegraph. 



Onvern- 
ment ex- 
peditions. 



slavery men on the one hand and of the Abolitionists 
on the other. California was admitted to the union, 
and the fugitive slave law was passed. Instead of 
bringing quiet, as the Missouri Compromise hau done, 
the Cornpromise of 1850 was the beginning of a more 
bitter and deadly strife. Perhaps the most important 
feature of the Compromi.se, in its bearing upon future 
events, was the fugitive slave law. The cruelties 
attending its execution aroused the fierce indignation 
of the north. The disgust and horror felt toward it 
caused the passage, by some northern legislatures, of 
"personal liberty laws," intended to protect free 
negroes falsely alleged to be fugitive slaves. During 
the discussion of Clay's Compromise Bill of 1850, 
President Taylor died after a very short illness (July 9, 
1850), and- Vice-President Fillrauie succeeded to the 
vacaut office. He enforced the Compromise Act im- 
partially, but the fugitive slave law was often evaded 
and sometimes forcibly resisted. It strenglhened 
the anti-slavery party in the free states, while the 
agitation of the question of the morality and wisdom 
of slavery was hotly resented at the south. 

220. It was now the middle of the century, and the 
unioti seem':d fidl of prosperity. So various had the 
interests of the people become that a new department 
in the administration had been created (1849) called the 
department of the interior, and comprised a number of 
ofBces bke the census office, patent othce, land office, 
and bureau of Indian affairs, all of which had for- 
merly been scattered among the other departments. The 
secretary of this department was made a member of 
the cabinet. During Mr. Fillmore's administration 
postage was reduced, so that an ordmary letter could 
be sent to any jilace in the country for three cents. 
Before that it h;id cost ten cents to send a letter from 
Phd.idelphia to Boston. At once the number of letters 
transmitted through the mails was wonderfully in- 
creased. The extinction of Indian titles in northern 
Michigan brought about the discovery of the great 
copper mines of that region, whose existence had long 
been suspected before "it could be proved. Railroads 
in the e.ist were beginning to show something of a 
connected system, and the increase of railways in the 
west made it possible for the great farms to send grain 
and other provisions to the city very cheaply. Rail- 
roads in the south had hardly changed since 1840. In 
1840 Samuel F. B. Morse, an American artist, had re- 
ceived a patent for an electric telegraph apparatus, and 
four years later he sent his first dispatch over the wires 
from Baltimore to Washington. This practical proof 
of the power of the telegraph was followed by a rapid 
extension of lines in every direction. 

221. Several expeditions were ordered by government 
to gain a better knowledge of the national domain. In 
18-18, and again in 18.52 and 1853, Captain John C. 
Fremont was sent out with exploring parlies to the 
Rocky Mountains. The discoveries which he made, 
and the new importance of California since the dis- 
covery of gold there, induced the government to make 
more can-ful surveys. The war department undertook 
one to determine the most practicable and economical 
route for a railroad from the Mississippi ri"er to the 
Pacific ocean. Captain Wilkes was sent to the Pacific 
Ocean, where he explored the Antarctic continent; an 
expedition under Lieutenant Lynch explored the valley 
of "the Jordan and the Dead Sea; and Commodore Perry 
was sent with a fleet to Japan, a country which had 
heretofore been almost unknown to Europe and to 
America. 

222. Between the east and the west railroads were 
growing busier. Towns and cities sprang up along their 
routes, and where a new and fertile district was found 
the settlers did not rest until they had a railway for the 
transportation of their produce; and very often the 
railroad itself was the pioneer of a new territory, 
being followed by the people who made claims along 



its route. Ships and steamers were constantly crossing 
the Atlantic. Improvements were made by American 
shipbuilders in the construction of sailing vessels and 
the clippers, as they were called, were built, which were 
able to sail with a good wind almost as swiftly as 
steamers. The increased development of wealth in the 
country gave a fresh impetus to the spirit of invention. Inventions. 
McCormick invented his reaping machine, and obtained 
a patent for it in 1834. Its results have been hardly 
less in importance to the United States than the inven- 
tion of the locomotive. Since then agricultural machines 
and implements have rapidly increased. It was agri- 
cultural machines that made the western farms profit- 
able, and enabled the railroads to fill the west so 
rapidly with popul, ion. Friction matches had come 
into use, and anthracite coal was now exten«'ve)y used 
both in raanufaclures and locomotion. In 1839 Good- 
year had devised his method of vulcanizint; india- 
rubber. In 1840 came the sewing machine, the power- 
loom, and the use of anresthetics in surgical practice. 
The rotary printing press was invented in 1847. 

223. During this rapid change in all the conditions of 
life, it was not strange that there should be a cor- 
responding change in the minds of men, and that their 
ideas should become somewhat unsettled. Hence 
transcendentalism in religion, literature and poliiics 
began to flourish; visionary proposals of every kind 
were made; new communities were established, and 
new sects sprang up. In 1830 Joseph Smith had 
declared that he had received a revelation fnim God 
which was contained in a book called The Book of 'J'j'jj^jjjQjjg 
Mormon. He formed a society of men and women ' 

who were his disciples, and called themselves Mormons, 
and they made a settlement in Missouri. In 1838, 
Smith, with his followers, was driven away to Nauvoo, 
in Illinois. Ten years later. Smith was killed, and the 
Mormons, under Brigham Young, removed beyond the 
western frontier, and settled on the broad plain about 
Great Salt Lake, in the new Territory of Utah. Their 
missionaries traveled in the older slates and in Europe, 
making converts, and bringing them to the new Mor- 
mon home. They offered to people who were dison- 
tented, and to the hard-worked poor, a land of promise 
and plenty. They appealed to religious people, and 
declared that God was with them, as He had been with 
the Jews of old. Salt Lake City was founded, and 
became their capital. Sincethen, having rapidly increased 
in wealth and population, they have now beo<-ime a dan- 
gerous factor in the American system. Their peculiar 
tenets, which consist mainly in their polygamy and 
submission to their sacred hierarchy, have rendered it 
impossible to admit them as a State into the Union, 
while their numbers are so great that it is contrary to 
American instincts to deprive them of the right of self- 
government, and keep them under the power of Con- 
gress. A solution of the vexing question may soon be 
reached by the increasing enforcement of the United 
States laws against polygamy. 

224. About the middle of the century, the American Education 
methods of education were greatly improved, and j^j'^'^^.^j^j^.^ 
American literature began to attract the world's atten- 
tion. There were publication societies formed by the 
churches, which multiplied books, papers and tracts 
without ntunber, and these found their way to remote 
villages and homes. Educational societies helped 
establish schools and colleges in the thinly settled 

parts of the country. There was a Colonization Society, 
which tried to answer some of the difficult questions of 
slavery by sending free blacks to Liberia, in Africa. 
This was the time when the lyceum system became 
popidar. In the cities and towns courses of lectures 
were instituted, and the la'est thoughts in science, art, 
literature, politics and philosophy, were given to the 
people. The newspaper had become a national insti- News- 
tulion, and was a familiar visiter to the great majority P"?^"- 
of f amili-s of the republic. There were daily papers 



U N 11^ E I) S ^1^ A T E S 



in all the cities and towns, and in many papers the con- 
tents of books were published, aside from the general 
news and topics which interested the country. Amer- 
ican authors were taking their place among the great 

Aimrirun men of the ages in the realm of letters. Before 1830, 

anihore. ;, Bryant, Irving and Cooper, had become distinguished. 
In 1S47, Edgar Allan Poe, the most imaginative of Amer- 
ican poets, had died. In l!Sr)(), Wasliitiglon Irving had 
written idl his works except his Life of Washington. 
The poems bj' which William Culleu Bryant is best 
known had been wrillea and given to the world. 
James Fenimore Cooper died the iie.\t year, leaving 
behind him a long list of novels, the best of which 
were descripiive of American life. Then came Long- 
fellow. Whittier. XJawthurne. Holmes. Bancroft, I'res- 
cott and Emerson. The Scarlet Letter had been given 
to the public, which made ilawlhorne famous. lx)ng- 
felluw had published Evangeline, and many of his 
most popular poems. Whittier had become celebrated 
as a poei; Oliver Wendell Holmes, as a poet and wit, 
William Gilmorc Simms. as a novelist; Ralph Waldo 
Emerson had become known by his essays as one of 
the great masters of English prose; .James Russell 
Lowell, poet and satirist, h.id issued his Biglow Papers, 
which helped people to understand the meaning of the 
Mexican war, while they laughed over the verses. 
And besides these, there were many others who 
assisted in raising the standard of American literature, 
and niakmg it a distinct voice of the nation. 

225. All these things — churches, lyceums, public 
meetings, societies, newspapers and books, hau their 
inlluence in shaping public opinion ; and as they 
increased, more earnest grew the discussicra of the 
slavery question. About this time, when the adminis- 
tration of Fillmore was coming to an end, a book was 
brought out which had an enormous sale, and was 
translated into all the literary languages of the world. 

Cnclo This book was "Uncle Tom's Cabin." written by Mrs. 

rab"' Harriet Beecher Stowe, and it was for the time more 
widely read throughout the world than any other book. 
It was a story claiming to show what negro slavery 
really was, and what it meant in the lives of 
men and women, white and black, in the Southern 
Stales of the Union. The book was candidly written, 
and in a wonderful spiiit of fairness, rather understat- 
ing than exaggerating the evils of slavery, and its truths 
were all the more convincing for that reason. Its 
influence was doubtless very great in strengthening the 
anti-slavery feelini; at the north, and in llually extin- 
guishing the disturbing evil of the country. 

VII. — THE APPROACHING CONFLICT. 

Conven 220. June 1, K't'2. the Democratic National Conven- 

tinnH of tional met at Baltimore. Its platform included the 
"*^- strict constructionist platforms of former conventions, 

endorsed the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions of 
1798, and pledged the Democratic party to a faithful 
observance of the compromise of 1.S50, including the 
Fugitive Slave Law, and denounced all agitatation of 
the slavery question. It nominated Franklin Pierce, of 
New Hampshire, and William R. King, of Alabama. 
The Whig National Convention met June 16 at Balti- 
more. In its platform it adopted its usual loose con- 
structionist principles, though somewhat more cau- 
tiously ■ worded than formerly, and endorsed the 
compromise of 18.")l) and the J''ugitive t^lave Law. It 
nominated Wintield Scott, of Virginia, and William A. 
Graham, of North Carolina. The Free Soil Democratic 
Convention convened at Pittsburgh August II. In its 
platform it declared slavery to be a s'n against God and 
a crime against man, and denounced the compromise of 
1850, and the two parties who supported it. It nomin- 
ated John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, and George W. 
Julian, of Indiana. Some of the Whigs, dissatisfied 
with General Scott, wished to bring forward Daniel 
Webster a.s an independent candidate, but Mr. V\^'bster 



died in October of that year. Henry Clay had also 
died in June of the same year. The.se two great 
leaders of the Whig parly were succeeded by such men 
as Sumuer, Seward and Chase, avowed enemies of 
slavery. John (;. Calhoun was also dead, and Jefferson 
Davis, afterwards to play such an important jiart in 
the nation's Instory, acquired the leadership of the 
slave-holders of the south. 

227. The slavery question was the principal issue in 
the presidential election in Novemlier, 1852, and in the 
contest the AVliigs met with a crushing defeat, which 
put an eiul to their parly. Wlien the electoral votej 
were counted in February, 18.");), it was found that 
Pierce and King had received 254, and Scott and Gra- 
ham only 42. Mr. Pierces administration (185;i-57) was PiiTre's 
chiefly occupied with the slavery dispute, in which he uii'niuistra- 
repre.seuted the policy of the southern party. He chose """' 
William L. Marcy for secretary of state, James Guihrie 
for secretary of the treasury, Jefferson Davis for secre- 
tary of War, and Caleb Gushing for attorney-general. 

2iS. The slave power was now at a loss what to do The plave 
for new tirritory in which to extend itself. The north pi'wer. 
had already a preponderance in the senate, coiiseijuent 
upon the admission of California, and, from the rapid 
growth of the northwestern states, in whieli New Eng- 
land ideas and sentiments were becoming jiredominant, 
the southern leaders recognized the fact tliat crc long 
the north would hold the power in the house. W(-b- 
ster had shown, in his memorable speech of March 7, 
1850, that there was no more territory forslavcry within 
the limits of the union. What, then, were the south- 
ern stales to do? It seemed absolutely necessary at 
once to get a new slave state to balance California, but 
the available land south of 36° 30^ was already occu- 
pied. New Mexico and the Indian Territory south of Ar- 
kansas presented themselves, but the westward move- 
ment of population along these lines would be far too 
slow for their purpose. 

229. Seeing no legitimate method to acquire terri- 
tory, their former plan was repeated, if not by the 
southern states themselves, certainly under the in.sliga- 
tion of many of their citizens, and by members of the 
state rights party of the south, and for their advantage; 
for it was precisely at this period that William Walker, 
of Tennessee, the notorio'ua filibuster, undertook to Filiijuster- 
snatch Sonora for the south from Mexico, exactly as '"'"'■ 
his predecessors had douc with Texas. But he failed. 
In 1855, he and his baud made the same experiment in 
Nicaragua. Here, for a time, he was successful. He 
overturned the lawful government, made himself pres- 
ident, and almost made the state in readiness for slav- 
ery and annexation to the federal government. But he 
was subsequently driven out, after which he returned 
home greatly disappointed and mortified. After two 
more unsuccessful attempts on Nicaragua, he planned 
his fifth and last expedition against Honduras. He 
was encouraged and assi-led by his southern friends; 
mass meetings of his supporters were held even in New 
York, and in many other northern cities; and the stale 
sovereignty party everywhere ap;)lauded his efforts to 
revolutionize and wrong a state. But Walker failed 
more fatally this time. He was defeated, captured and 
shot. 

230 Having been foiled in the attempt to gain aftiba. 
foothold in Central America, the slave power now 
turned to another state as offering a solution of their 
difficulties. The soiuhern stales wished to annex Cuba. 
Mr. Pierce proposed to buy it, and at his suggestion a 
conference was held at Ostend, in Belgium (1854) be- 
tween the American ministers to Spain. England and 
France, Messrs. Pierre Souli, James Buchanan and 
John V. Mason to consider the question. A memoran- 
dum drawn up by these gentlemen and submitted to 
the president, is known as the Ostend Manifesto. It <i^'<'n<l 
declared that Cuba was necessary to the United States; """'1™*°- 
that it was the duty of this country to prevent the 



UITITED STATES 



emancipation of slaves in the island; and that if Spain 
refused to sell Cuba, the United .States would be justi- 
fied in taking it from her by force. This declaration 
caused great indignation in the north. Nothing, how- 
ever, came of it. 
Teiideiirii's 331 Meanwhile, the tendencies to disunion were be- 
to '^QDiou^pjj^jijg gjj.^_ijjggj.^ Texas, the last slave State ever ad- 
mitted, had refused to be divided, hence the South 
could hope for no further increase of numbers. After 
1850, the political power had passed out of the hands 
of the south. The free states now, by uniting, could 
control both houses of Congress, elect the president 
and vice president, dictate the appoiulment of judges 
and other federal officers, and make what laws they 
pleasid. Thus the interests of the south depended 
upon the one question whether the frte states would 
thus unite or not. Under circumstances so critical it 
were belter for the slave power that all questions call- 
ing inihlic attention to the question of slavery should 
be avoided ; this, however, was simply impossible. The 
numbiTs interested in its solution had become too great 
to be silenceii. It was the question of the hour, dis- 
cussed in all ranks of society, breaking up party lines, 
and even disorganizing ecclesiastical institutions. The 
Protestant church organizations of the United States 
had been greatly agitated by the irrepressible question, 
and some of them became divided. In 1845, the Bap- 
tist church separated into a northern and southern 
branch, and the Methodist church shared the same fate 
the following j'ear. The Presbyterian church man- 
aged to maintain its integrity until 1861, when it also 
yielded to the pressure ; and the only churches retain- 
ing their national character were the Episcepal and 
Romnn Catholic. 
Kan?aa- 232. The southern leaders, strongly desirous of 

^_r^)raska ac(]uiiing more territory in which to extend slavery, 
now concocted a seemingly practicable scheme to get 
control of that part of the country lying west of Mis- 
souri and Iowa. This land lay to the north of 86° 80\ 
and according to the terms of the Missouri compromise, 
was f<irever to be free soil. A plan was devised to 
obtain if possible, the repeal of that celebrated com- 
pact. With the aid of some of the northern members 
of (Congress this might be done. The scheme proved 
puccessful so far as legislation could go. In December, 
1853. a bill was introduced in the senate to organize 
the territory of Nebraska. A southern senator at once 
arose and demanded that the Missouri compromise 
should not be so construed as to prohibit slavery within 
the new territory. The bill was at once dropped. But 
a sufHeient number of free state Democrats soon ac- 
quiesced in the southern demand to make it a success. 
One week later a new bill was brought in, known as 
the Kansas-Nebraska bill. It divided the region 
covered by the previous Nebraska bill into two terri- 
tories, one directly west of Missouri, and between the 
parallels of 37° and 40°, to be called Kansas, and the 
other north of this and between the parallels 40° and 
43°, to be called Nebraska. Thus two slates were 
opened to the southern institution, instead of one, for 
this new bill distinctly declared that the Missouri 
Compromise had been swept away by the later com- 
promise of 18.50. Presiilent Pierce had pledged him- 
self to the south, in his letter accepting his nominatinn, 
to acknowledge and execute this latest bargain with 
slavery, in case he should be elected. 
SquaiiiT 233. The bill was enacted, but the position was now 
KovtT- assumed, that Congress hail no authority to vote slavery 
iit, or lo vote it out of either of these territories, since it 
belonged of natural right to their respective populations 
to decide for themselves the character of their own in- 
stitutions. This idea was known as that of squatter 
sovereignty, and it was proclaimed iu order to open 
Kansas to an iminediate slave immigration from Mis- 
souri, while Nebraska might afterward be captured in 
the same way from slaveholding Kansas. It was a 



elgnty. 



plausible doctrine, because it appealed to that strong 
love of local self-government which has always been 
one of the soundest political instincts of the American 
people. The plan was an astute one. It originated 
with Stephen A. Douglass, a northern Democrat, and 
laid bare the finest region of country which opened up for 
settlement, as a battle-irround between the slave-labor 
and the free-labor systems. 

234. This act was the most palpable blunder ever 
known in the history of American politics. Its practi- 
cal result was to create a furious rivalry between north 
and south, as to which should first get settlers enough 
in Kansas to secure a majority of the popular vote. The 
issue, thus clearly defined, wrought a new division be- 
tween political parties. The southern Democrats and 
southern Whigs united infavorof the Kansas-Nebraska 
bill, while the northern Whigs and Free-Soilers united 
against it. The division between the northern and 
southern Whigs was final. The northern section at once 
repudiated their old party name, and combining with all 
the northern men who were opposed to the extension of 
slavery took the name of anti-Nebraska men, and sue- Anti-Ne- 
ceeded in electing a majority of the hous ; of represen- "'*'"' "'' 
tatives. A new party had arisen in 1852, which was 

now an important factor in American politics. It as- 
sumed the form of a secret oath-bound organization, of 
whose name, nature and objects, nothing was told, even 
to its members until they had reached its higher de- 
grees. Their consequent declaration that they knew 
nothing about it gave the society its pojHilar name of 
"Know-Nothings," but it assumed the name of the 
"American party." Its design was to oppose the intln- The Anicri- 
ence of the Roman Catholic church, the easy naturali- ^''" ''" 
zation of foreigners, and to aid the election of native- 
born citizens to office. Its nominations were made by 
secret conventions of delegates from the various lodges, 
and its nominees were to be voted for by all its members 
under penalty of expulsion in case of refusal. For a 
time it was quite successful in state elections, and was 
now aiming at a greater extension of its influence. At 
first it had intended to ignore the slavery question, but 
after a few years of existence the complications arising 
from the discussion of this subject affected its organi- 
zation and resulted in its division. 

235. The old Whig party disappeared about this 
time. Some of its members joined the American 
party, and the majority, including the old anti- 
slavery men and Free Soikrs, with matiy others, 

united under the name of the Kepublican party. Tlie Rt-pub- 
The natne was at once recognized by the Democrats, ^''^'"' P'"''^- 
who, in contempt, called them " Black Republicans," 
because of their alleged fondness for negroes. The 
Democratic party, which had been practically the only 
party since 1852, had now to contend with a political 
organization which adopted broad C'inslructionist prin- 
ciples, declared itself in favor of protective tariff, in- 
ternal improvements and a national systemof baukcur- 
rency, and addi d to them the further priiicijile that the 
Federal government has the power 10 control slavery in 
the territories. It affirmed, at tJr^t, tliat it had no de- 
sign to interfere with the institution of slavery in the 
slates where it belonged, but siinplyinlended toexeUide 
it from the territories. But with the eiuineiation of its 
fundamental principles it was at once recognized tiS an 
anti-slavery piirly. and theonlj' one to which tUe south- 
ern slave could look with the faintest hope of aid In 
throwing off the chains of bondage. The Democratic 
party had cpiile thrown aside its original title — that of 
Republican — but the name was still popular, and the 
new party, by a skillful stroke of policy, took advantage 
of this feelinij and assumed the old name. Thus, in 
1856, the two great parties, which were to figure so 
largely for the next thirty years iu the history of the 
country, were arrayed against each other. 

236. "The attention of the whole country had now |^,7ff ™t 
been turned to the struggle provoked by the Kansas- Kansas. 



UNI T E D S T A T E S 



Nebraska Mil. and llio repeal of the Missouri Com- 
promise. Kansas had been offered as a prize to be 
contended for by free and slave slates, and both had 
accepted the coni'st. As in the case of California, it 
■was found a slow work to colonize the new territory, 
even from Mi>souri, by permanent settlers, for the 
people of that slate had land enough of their own, 
still unoccupied, to absorb for years their surplus 
population. The only recourse, therefore, was to send 
their worst inhabitants across the border, not to settle, 
but to vote and tiijbt for slavery. Consecjuently gaujrs 
of "border ruffians" poured into Kansas from Missouri 
and Arkansas. But the free slates were not behind in 
a struggle. Anti-slavery societies subscribed money to 
hasten iinraigralion into the contested territory, and 
people from the free states migrated thiiher in such 
numbers that in a few months they consiilutcd a de- 
cided and biwful majority of the actual settlers. The 
admiuislraiion took alarm at the ill success of its own 
plans. Jlany of the inhabitants of Missouri undertook 
to impede the passage of northern emigranls through 
their state, but the immigrants circumvented them by 
winding their way around through the free state of 
lowii. In the nieanlime the govirnment sent an army 
to Kansas, professedly to keep the peace, but it would 
seem in realitj' to compel the acci'ptance and (stablisli- 
ment of slavery. The first election of a delegate to 
Congress took place November 2!), liS.54. and was carried 
by organized bands from Missouri, who crossed the 
border on election day, voted, and returned at once. 
In the spring of 185.5, the ruHians in tliis way voted to 
organize a territorial legislature, and this measure was 
carried in the same lawless manner. In July, 1855, 
this le.'islature, all pro-slavery, met at Pawnee, and 
adopted a stale constitution. To save tnmble, as well 
as to secure at once the establishment of slavery, they 
took a summary vote, adopting in their entirety the 
laws of slaveholding Missouri. At the same lime they 
enacted a set of original statutes, which denounced 
the penalty of death for nearly 50 ditTerent offences 
against the institution of human bondage. 
Free-state 237. To defend themselves against these illegal pro- 
govern- ceedings, the actual settlers held a free-slate conven- 
""'"'■ lion at Topeka, September 5, 1855. rei>udialitig the 

work of the pro-slavery parly; and on January 15, 185G, 
they elected state officers under the lawful constitution. 
Nine days afterwards, the state-rights president, in a 
special message to Congress, endorsed the pro-slavery 
legislature, and pronounced the attemiit to form a free- 
state government, without the approval of the Federal 
authorities in the territory, to be an act of rebellion. 
He then issued a proclamation warning all persons 
against such acts of resistance to the lawfid govern- 
ment, and despatched another body of troops to enforce 
the constitution of the border rulfians. The struggle 
continued unabated. In the senate-chamlier Charles 
Sninnei Sumner had been stricken to the floor with a bludgeon 
and Brooks and nearly murdered by Brooks, in the presence of 
several southern and unresisting senators, for daring to 
criticise these unjust and one-siiled proceedings. Brooks 
was expelled by northern votes, but was immediately 
returned by his southern constituents. In Kansas, the 
free-state settlers refuse to recognize the territorial 
government of the slave party, and as the pro-slavery 
settlers and their allies would not render obedience to 
the other government, the contest passed into a real 
civil war, the two sides mustering consideralile armies, 
lighting battles, capturing towns, and paroling prison- 
ers. Two free-state towns, Lawrence and (Jssawat- 
tomie. were sacked. The free-state legislature peace- 
ably a.ssembled at Topeka, and was dispersed by order 
of the president. Many of its members were arrested 
and imprisoned. Every free-state citizen's dwelling 
had to be guarded and defended by armed force, and 
no free-state man could plow or plant or gather in his 
crops without lighting for his life. 



238. The free settlers still continued to maintain Ihcir 
position, in spite of the persistence of slave party, with 
the wliole force of the administration at its back. Sev- 
eral iiro-slavery governors — Shannon, Geary and 
Walker — were sent to rcjtresent the southern party,- 
and .subdue the ciiizcns to its purpose and control. A 

second slave constitution, made at Ijcconiplon, was of- Leconipton 
fered to the people in a tricky and nefarious manner, j"'!'"'"' 
It was to be voted for "with" or "without " .slavery, but 
in either case there would be an allirmation of the doc- 
trine of stales-rights. The free settlers accordingly re- 
fused to vote. The constitution of necessity was adopted 
and the new document sent to Washington, was ac- 
cepted by the president and State-rights party. Hut 
the measure failed to carry through the house. Another 
terriiorial legislature was elected, and this body sent the 
Lecomplon constitution to the polls to be voted for. or 
again.st.as a whole. It was defeated by a majority of six 
thousand. In spite of this, however, the president, in a 
special message, urged upon Congress the Lecompton con- 
stitution with its slavery features,declaringtbat the new 
legislature had no right to submit it to a second vote. But 
he was not sustained. In July, 1859, the citizens of 
Kansas met again in convention at Wyandotte, and 
adopted a resolution forever excluding slavery. It re- 
ceived a majority of four thousand at the i)olls. 

239. In the heat of the Kansas struggle came the Presidential 
presidential election of 1850. The Democrats nomi- ot'l's'^'"'" 
nated James Buchanan and John C. Breckenridge, 
adopted the strict constructionist platform of former 
conventions, and added to it an endorsement of the 
Kansas-Nebraska bill and the principle of squatter 
sovereignty. The Kepublicans nominated the western 
explorer. John C. Fremont, and declared the right and 

duty of Congress to prohibit slavery in the territories, 
thus planting themselves upon the ground of the Wil- 
raot Ptoviso. The small remnant of Whigs, including 
the Know-Kothings of the north and those southern 
men who wished no further discussion of slavery, nomi 
nated Fillmore, and tried to turn attention away from 
the great r|uestion at issue by protesting against the loo 
hasty naturalization of foreign-boru citizens. Buchanan 
reel ived 17-1 electoral voles, Fremont 114 and Fillmore 
8. The large Republican vote showed that the northern 
people were at length awakened to the situation, and 
the south in conscijuence was both astonished and 
alarmed. For the first time in the history of the coun- 
try a distinctively anti-slavery candidate had obtained 
an electoral vole, and had nearly gained the presidency. 
Though tlio Democratic [larty had been successful in 
this election. its triumph was seen to be far less complete 
than when it come init of the election of 1852. It no 
longer controlled twenty-seven of the thirty-one states; 
all the free stales but five had cast their voles against 
it, and its candidate no longer had a majority of the 
popular vote, but was simply chosen by a majority of 
the electoral vole. 

The strongest section of the Union was in the hands 
of its ])c>Utical opponent, through who.se ranks a spirit 
of earnest enlhusiasm was being increasingly diffused. 

240. The strength of the opposition manifested against 
the Democratic party in this election, more than ever 
convinced the south that the lime was fast approach- 
ing when political power would pa.ss from those who 
defended slavery to those who opposed it. Hence the 
slave power gathered up its forces for the great struggle 
which must inevitably ensue. It became more aggress- 
ive than ever. It demanded a renewal of the African .\frican 
slave trade, which had been forbidden since 1808, and slave-trade, 
without wailing for the question to be settled, the ne- 
farious traflic was opened on an extensive scale, with 

but little attempt at concealment. During the year 
1857, twenty-two vessels engaged in this business were 
captured by the British fleet watching the African coast 
and every vessel but one of these was American. By 
1860 the trade had assumed large proportions, and was 



UNITED STATES 



openly advertised in the southern newspapers. But 
this was not deemed sulticient. To insure the perpetua- 
tion (if the "peculiar institution," it was necessary to 
enlist the active protection of the Federal government 
i-n its f.ivor. Squatter sovereignty had not served the 
purpose, for in the Kansas struggle, despite all the ef- 
forts made, slavery had been worsted. Squatter sover- 
eignty was accordingly thrown aside, and a demand 
made that the Federal government should protect slav- 
ery in all the territories. 
TheDTPd 341 jjp to this time the constitutionality of the 
cision. ^ Missouri Compromise had never been considered in the 
supreme court. The question was brought to test in 
a case which was decided in 1857, two days after 
Buchanan's inauguration. One Dred Scott, a slave 
who had been taken by his owner from Missouri into 
free territory, and had therefore sued for his freedom, 
was sold to a citizen of another state. Scott then 
transferred his suit to the Federal courts, under the 
power given them to try suits between citizens of dif- 
ferent states, and the case came by appeal to the 
supreme court. The decision was startling to the 
north. It declared, in suhslauee, that according to the 
consiiiution. no slave, or the descendant of slaves, 
could be a citizen of the United States; that slaves were 
not persons, but property, and that slave-owners could 
migrate from one part of the union to another and take 
their negroes with them, just as they could take their 
horses or an> other property. It, moreover, pro- 
nounced the Missouri Compromise Act unconstitutional 
and void, slaves being private property, with which 
Congress had no right to interfere. And it further 
declared that it was the duty of Congress, not to pro- 
hibit, but to protect, slavery in the territories. The 
mass of the northern people held the opposite of 
Chief Justice Taney's decision. They claimed that 
slaves were regarded by the constitution, not as prop- 
ert}', but as " persons held to service or labor" by 
State laws; that Congress was constitutionally bound 
to protect liberty as well as property; and that its duty- 
was to prohibit, not to protect, slavery in the terri- 
tories. It was plain that the decision of the supreme 
court would never be received as the law by the free 
states. A storm of angry dissent arose, of which the 
slave-holders hastened to take advantage. They main- 
tained that the duty of Congress to protect slavery in 
the territories had been confirmed by the highest 
judicial authority in the land, and that the Republicans 
had refused to accept its rulings; therefore, whatever 
the result might be, the Republican party must accept 
the responsibility. At this time, as will be seen, the 
northern, or Douglass Democrats as they were called, 
who had heretofore supported the south, now refused 
to follow the southern lead any further, but chose 
rather to divide the part3'. 
Slave states 243. In 1860 the slave states were fifteen in number, 
and free namely, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, 
states. South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Kentucky, Tennes- 
see, Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas (admitted 1836), 
Floriila (1845), and Te.xas (1845). The free states 
were eighteen, namely, Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- 
mont, Massachusetts, Ijbode Island, Connecticut, New 
York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illi- 
nois. Michigan (admitted 1887), Iowa (1840), Wisconsin 
(1848), California, Minnesota (1858), and Oregon (18.59). 
Kansas had adopted a free state constittition, but was 
not admitted until 1861. At this period the population 
of the United States was more than Jil, 000,000, an 
increase of over 8,000,000 in ten years. The population 
of the slave states was 12,000,000, including 4,000,000 
slaves and 250,000 free blacks; but the colored element 
in the southern population could hardly be regarded as 
a factor of strength, but rather as a possible source of 
danger. No serious slave uprising had ever threatened 
Brl'iwn'B '^^ south, but John Brown's raid and the alarm which 
raid. it pro Juced in the southern states betokened a danger 



which added a new terror to the chances of a civil war. 
Brown, a Connecticut man of the old Puritan type, 
had been an anti-slavery leader in the Kansas fights. 
His plan was to rai-e an insurrection among the slaves 
of Virginia, and arm them to liberate their people by 
force. In October, 1859. he and his men surprisetl and 
seized Harper's Ferry, where there was a large .'-lore of 
muskets and ammunition; but the negroes did not rise, 
and Brown was overpowered by national and state 
troops, and hanged (December 2) by the authorities of 
Virginia. 

243. The next election for the presidency was looked 
forward to as a critical time. Many persons of in- 
fluence in the south declared that if the election should 
strengthen the preponderance of the north, the slave 
states would break up the union and form a confeder- 
acy of their own. The Democratic national conven- 
tion, which met at Charleston, S. C, April 23, 1860, 
was characterized by its stormy session. The demands 
of the southern e.xtremists produced a political schism, 

and the convention with the party was split into two The pplit in 
distinct portions. The Douglas Democrats refused to ">'^' P™''^" 
yield to the wishes of the slave power, and still main- "^"^""^ '""^ ^ 
taineil the principle that the question of slavery in 
each territory should be decided by its settlers; but they 
made a concession by offering a resolution'that the party 
would abide by the decisions of the supreme court. 
The southern delegates offered resolutions affirming the 
doctrine of the Dred Scott decision, that neither con- 
gress nor the tc;ritoriai legislatures had a rigiit to pro- 
hibit slavery ia the territories. The convention adopted 
the Douglas platform, whereupon the delegates from 
many southern states, successively protested and with- 
drew, and at once organized a new convention in 
Charleston, adopted their platform, and adjourned to 
meet again in Richmond. June 11. The original con- 
vention, after balloting flftyseven times for candidates 
without a choice, adjourned to meet again at Baltimore, 
June 18. Upon reassembling at the appointed time, it 
seated some new delegates friendly to Douglas, where- 
upon the remaiuing southern delegates, who chiefly be^ 
longed to tbe border states, also withdrew, and joined 
their brethren at Richmond. Here they nominated 
John C. Breckenridge and Joseph Lane for president 
and vice-president. The remainder of the Ba' imore 
convention nominated Stephen A. Douglas and Herschel 
V. Johnson. The Republican convention assembled at 71,0 Repuh- 
Chicago, May 16. It adopted a somewhat broad con- in-an cnn- 
structtonist platform; advocated the exclusion of slav- ^■''""°"- 
ery from the territories by congj'essional measure; de- 
clared in favor of a protective tariff, the homestead 
bill, internal improvements, and a Pacific railway. It 
nominated Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin. 
There was a fourih organization called "The Constitu- Consii- 
tional Union Party." composed of the fragments of L'n!„I"l[(,r,y 
the old Whig and Know-Nothing parties. It declared 
as its political principles, "The constitution of the 
country, tbe union of the states, and the enforcement 
of the "laws." Its candidates were John Bell and Ed- 
ward Everett. Four parties were now in the field, and 
only two had the courage of their convictions, the 
southern Democrats and Reputilicans. The Bell party 
had adopted a "take it as you please" platform; it sim- 
ply evaded the slavery question altogether; while the 
Douglas platform sought to throw the responsibility of 
a decision concerning the question upon any shoulders 
except those of the Douglas Democrats. 

244. An exciting canvass now followed. The Re- Election 
publican party had been gaining confidence and en- ui ma. 
thusiasm, and the discordant efforts of the three par- 
ties opposed to it, only made Lincoln's election more 
certain. In the electoral college Lincoln obtained 180 
votes, Breckinridge 73, Bell 39, and Douglas 13. No 
candidate received a majority of the popular vote. Lin- 
coln standing first and Douglas second. The popular 

vote for Douglas, though large, was not so distributed 



UNITED ST A ^J^ E S 



as to gain a majority in any state cxci-pt Missouri; lie- 
side the nine electoral votes in that ^tate, he obtained 
three in New Jersey. Thus the eleclioii resulted in a 
decisive victory for the Ke|iublicans. Its significance 
was far reaching. The interesls of the south and even 
of slaverv lliere would In- sife enoufih under Lincoln, 
but the overthrow of the Dred Sro't and sciualter sov- 
creijinly doctrines was ceriain. au(i an inunediatc stop 
would be put to the extension of slaverj' iu the terri 
tories. In such circumstances the cour^^e of events was 
evident. Nullilieation was no longer feared by the na- 
tion. Secession on the part of a sinitle siale even, was 
noix almost out of the (lueslion. No one of the south- 
ern states would agree tosece<lc unless assured of sup- 
port by the others; a combined action was necessary to 
assure the success of any secession plans. 

Si-icuelon. 245. Durini; the discussion which preceded the elec- 
tion, the north heard repealed tin I'ats from the south, 
that if the Republican parly were successful, the slave 
holiling states would leave theuidoii; but these threats 
were looked upon as merely- the angry declarations of a few 
heated poliiicians. Yit these disunion expressions were 
sincere. The southern people had learned to look upon 
the north as thoroushly hostile to the south. Tliey 
made little distinction between the Hepubliciiii party 
and the Abolitionists, and they felt instinctively that a 
government elected in asjirit of opposition lo slavery 
would find many ways to injure it. The political Irib- 
its. and the w;\y of life at I he south, made it easy for 
southern voters to believe in disunion as a cure for the 
evils with which they felt they were threatened. The 
doctrine of state independence bad become familiar to 
them; it had been laid down in the Kentucky and Vir 
ginia resolutions of 17S)8. and had been maintaiiud by 
Georgia in the difficulty with the Indians, and by South 
Carolina in her Nullification Act. They had remained 
" Planting States;" they still had their own social life; 
the same families lived upon the same estates. There 
was no such constant movement from one state to an- 
other as at the north, nor any such introduction of im- 
migrants from Europe. They were, as they have al- 
ways had been, Carolinians or Virginians, rather than 
Americans. South Carolina took the lead iu fulfilling 
the promise of secession. As soon as it was announced 
that Mr. Lincoln was elected, her legislature order-d 
(November 10, 1S(!0. ) the assembling of a convention in 
December following. The senators from the state, and 
all office holders in South Carolina under the Federal 
government at once resigned. The convention met at 
the appointed time, and on December 20, unanimously 
passed an ordinance of secession declaring " that the 
union now subsisting between South Carolina and the oth- 
er states uniler the nameof the United Statesof America 
is hereby dissolved." As reasons for this course, the 
convention referred to the nullification of the Fugitive 
Slave Law by the personal-liberty bills, and the election 
of a president, "whose opinions and purposes were 
hostile lo slavery." The convention then took all the 
necessary steps to put the state in readiness for war, 
and a<ljourncd. A copy of the ordinance was sen! to 
each of the slave states, and several of them now rap- 
idly followed this liold lead. Similar ordinances were 
passed by Mississippi, .January fl. 1861; Florida, Janu- 
ary 10; Alabama, January II; Georgia, January 19; 
Louisiana, January 26, and T^xas. February 1. Ten- 
nessee, North Carolina, Arkansas and the border states 

' still refused to join their more southern neighbors. One 

force, however, might be exerted which would compel 
them to a decision. Should the Federal government 
attempt to coerce the seceding states, a state which did 
not wish lo secede, but maintained the doctrine of state 
sovereiirnty and the right of secession, would be inclined 
to take up arms in its defence. Thus, in the following 
spring.four more f>f the slavestales reinforced the origi- 
nal seven seceding states, making their final number 
eleven. 



24'>. The act of secession, at first, met with oppositi.m 
in the south, not Irom any sentiment that the act was 
wrong, bit from the expedieucy of its exercise. Dele- 
gates hud been electeil to the state conventions who 
were to vote agiiinst secession, but they were defeated 
through the i<lea which had obtained that thesiute 
"could niiike beller lernis out of the tuiion than in ii." 
Ii was held that it would be: more advantageous to Iheir 
rights and interests to withdraw temporarily from the 
Federal government until proper guaranties for the ob- 
servance of these should be given; and if all conditions 
were satisfactory, then they might deem it best to re- 
turn. Iu planning secession, the southern leaders rcc- 
omiizeil many tilings in favor of independence on which ^'""^"f ""^ 
tue\ supposi d they might reasonably count. °" ' 

To gain success, it was not necessary for them to con- 
(picr the north, or any jiart of it. but only to hold their own 
fronlier; whereas, slmulil the norih attempt coercion, it 
would necessitate the military occupali.m.by its armies, 
of the whoK vast area of the southern country, which 
would be a tremenduous undertaking never attempted 
before on a corresponding scale by any civilized govern- 
ment. They did not believe the Uniied Stati-s authori- 
ties would really attempt such a measure. In this they 
fatally erred. Tl;ey believed that all the slave stales 
would join in thesecession movement. Thi-. however, 
was not done. Then tiicy hoped that the action of the 
UepubUcan administration would be So paralyzed by 
Democratic opposition in the north, that its efforts at 
coercion would bi! rendered futile. In this they were 
lioonied to di~ap|)oiMtment; for when war came, the 
great majority of the northern Democrats loyally sup- 
]iorted the government; while those, nicknamed "Cop- 
perhe.-ids." who endeavored to impede its elforts, were 
too small in number to do an)' serious harm. Finally, 
ihey thought they might look for aid from England and 
France. "Cotton is king," was the cry, aiid while the 
English manufacturers were de|iendent for their c<itton 
from the south, it would scarcely be possible that the 
EnL'Iish government would allow the sinitbern coasts to 
be liloekadeil. But the sentiment of the great majorily 
of England's working people was found lo be in fav.rr 
of the north. The great mass of the English people, in 
spite of many aristocratic synioafhiziTs with Ihe south, 
felt ihatthe action of Great Britain in the African slave 
trade question, would not [lermit her, without the most 
glaring iucon'^isteney, to give support to the principal 
slave power in the world. With respect to France the 
case was just as hopeless. Napoleon III. it is true, was 
desirous (>f recognizing the independence of the south, 
for he had designs upon Mexico incompatilile with the 
Monroe doctrine, but he was unwilling to make the 
move without the concurrence of England, and this he 
could not obtain. Thus the soiiiheru leaders failed in 
their expectations, and were thrown upon their own 
resources. 

247. In February. 1861, a convention of delegates Orsauizs- 
from the seceding states met at Montgomery, the cap- tion of the 
ital of Alabama, and formed a government under the V""'''''' 
name of the Confederate States of America. Thetitle^ 
thus declared that the slates formed a confederacy and 
not a union. The government was a provisional one 
fot a year, since only seven of the southern states were 
represented. Jefferson Davis, of Mississipju, was 
chosen president and Alexander H. Stevens, of Georgia, 
vice president. A provisional constitution was funned, 
and an army, treasury, and other executive departmenls 
estiblished. The permanent constitution, adopted in 
March, was copied from th.at of the Uniied States, ex- 
cept that it made careful iirovi-ion for slavery, and for- 
bade a protective tarill or the maintenance of internal 
improvements at general expense. The seceding states 
at once took measures to take possession of I he arsenals, 
forts and other properly of the United States wiihin 
their borders. Mr. P.ueli'inan's secretary of war was 
John B. Floyd, of Virginia, a zealous secessionist, and 



UNITED « T A T E S 



by his orders an immense quantity of muskets, cannon, 
ammunition, and other warlilje stores had been trans- 
ferred from northern to southern arsenals. All this fell 
into the hands of the secession parly. The army was 
scattered at remote posts where it could be of no use, 
and most of the navy was at foreign stations. General 
Scott urged President Buchanan to strengthen the gar- 
risons of the southern forts, but Mr. Floyd protested, 
and nothing in that direction was done. 

348. The forts throughout the south were mainly in 
the hands of southern men, who delivered them to the 
new authorities. The commanders of Fort Pickens, at 
Pensacola, and of the forts at Key West and Tortugas 
refused to give them up. The greatest interest, how- 
ever, attached to the forts within the borders of South 
Carolina. The harbor of Charleston was commanded 
by Forts Sumter and Moultrie and Castle Pinckney. 
Fort Sumter was not yet finished, and the garrison, 
under Major Anderson, was occupying Fort Moultrie, a 
weaker work. This officer secretly transferred his men 
and supplies to Fort Sumter during the night of De- 
cember 26, 1860. South Carolina demanded the evacu- 
ation of the fort. President Buchanan refused the de- 

Starofthe niaud, and sent the steamer Staroftlie West Vi\Va fwp- 
West. plies an<i reinforcements for the fort. He intended the 

expedition to be a secret one, but it was known at once 
in Charleston, and when the steamer appeared it was 
fired upon and' driven back (January 9, 1S61). The 
South Carolinians had taken possession of the other 
forts in Charleston harbor, and now erected additional 
works. General P. G. T. Beauregard was placed in 
command of the harbor defences. President Buchanan 
was filled with perplexity. In his message to Congress 
he stated his inability to execute the laws in the seced- 
ing states, but Congress gave him no help. He con- 
demned the doctrine of secession, and deuied the right 
of the states to secede; he also denied the right of the 
government to coerce them when they did secede. His 
cabinet was divided. The southern members dropped 
out as their states seceded, and General Cass, of Michi- 
gan, secretary of state, resigned in displeasure at Mr. 
Buchanan's inaction. 

349. The resignation of the southern senators and 
representatives gave the Republicans a majority iu 

Kansas Congress. That body now proceeded to admit Kansas 
admitted, as a state, and passed a protective tariff designed to 
encourage manufactures. Otherwise Congress did 
nothing but pass resolutions intended to pacify the 
south. Time which should have been spent in concen- 
trating the energies of the Federal government, and pre- 
paring it to assert its supremacy, was friitered away in 
vain discussions about measures proposed to avert the 
disaster. Mr. Seward, senator from New York, and 
one of the most conspicuous of the Republicans, was 
willing to give up congressional pruhiliition of slavery 
in the territories, to enforce the fugitive slave law, 
and to perpetuate slavery by a constitutional amend- 
The popn- ment. The people throughout the country were in a 
lar feeling, gjg^ig pf bewilderment. The government authorities 
seemed to have no power to diiect affairs. Great 
meetings were held in the principal cities of the north 
denouncing abolitionism and urging extreme conces- 
sions. Prominent journals of both parties declared 
that armed coercion was madness and never would be 
permitted. At the suggestion of the Virginia legisla- 
Peacf ture, a peace congress, composed of delegates from 

Congress, thirteen free states and seven border states, met at 
Washington (February 4, 1861), and tried to bring 
about harmony between the sections, by proposing a 
number of amendments to the constitution. Nothing 
came, however, of any of these schemes. Disunion 
was now an assured fact, and was soon to pass into 
open hostility. It was during this state of affairs that 
the new administration of Abraham Lincoln entered 
upon its perplexing duties. 



VIII. — THE CIVIL WAR. 

250. Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated March 4, 1861. In Lincoln's 
his address he declared that he had neither the right inaugura- 
nor the desire to interfere with slavery where it already "°"' 
existed; that no state could lawfully go out of the union; 
and that he should maintain the laws and constitution 
of the United States to the best of his ability. The new 
administration was beset with difficulties on every 
side, and the condition of affairs seemed almost des- 
perate. Many of those who for years had guided the 
"ship of state," and who understood its workings, 
were now foremost in advocating secession. Mr. Lin- 
coln's officers were new to the business of the FcdJ;ral 
government. The treasury, by defalcation, was nearly 
bankrupt. Few troops were within call;. and the army 
had been almost broken up by the surrender of 
detached forces in the Confederate states, and the cap- 
ture of munitions of war. The vessels of the navy were 
sailing or at anchor in distant waters, and numerous 
officers of both the army end the navy were resigning 
their commissions on the ground that they owed 
allegiance first to the states from which they came. 
Seven states had already revolted, and others were 
ready to swell the number upon the first attempt to 
enft>rce the Federal authority. The public officers 
were largely occupied by persons in sympathy with 
the secession movement, and every step taken by the 
new government was known at once to the leaders of 
the Confederacy, und to crown all, Mr. Lincoln was 
beset by a vast horde of office-seekers eager to take 
advantage of the change of administration. 

2.51. The president wailed a month and then notified Fort 
Governor Pickens, of South Carolina, that he should '*""""• 
send supplies to Fort Sumter at all hazards. This 
announcement precipitaied an attack upon the fort. 
Major Anderson was first summoned to surrender, but 
he refused. At daj'break on the morning of April 12, 
1861, the Confederacy began its open conflict with the 
United States. All the batteries around the fort opened 
fire upon it; the fort replied, and the bombardment 
continued for thirty six hours without loss of life on 
either side. The ammunition in the fort was then 
exhausted, and the works inside were on fire. There- 
upon the United States flag, for the first time in its 
history, was lowered to insurgent citizens, and the 
garrison capitulated. This event aroused the north as Effect in 
if from a trance. Until now, the mass of the people "'^' ""''"'• 
had refused to believe in real danger; but the first 
shock of arms thoroughly convinced them that the 
south was ready to fight, and could not be curbed 
without war. It did more than this. In the northern 
states party distinctions were for a time swept aside; 
there was but one party worth the name — the party for 
the union. The southern states were no longer 
"erring sisters" to be coaxed by concessions. The 
whole north called loudly for the full exercise of the 
Federal power to compel the south to obedience at the 
point of the bayonet. 

2.53. The day after the evacuation of Fort Sumter First call 
President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers for three [p'^r8°'°°" 
months (April 15). The response was so promptly 
made that the first Massachusetts troops began their 
march on the same day, and in a surprisingly short 
time the quota was full; nay, it could have been filled 
three or four times over, and the many who were 
refused felt a keen disappointment at not being allowed 
to bear arms in defense of the union. In the south, The feeling 
also, the effect of the first conflict was correspondingly gumh. 
great. To the ignorant masses it did not seem possible 
that any other power could be superior to that of 
their own state; while the more intelligent classes had, 
from their childhood, imbibed the doctrine that state 
sovereignty was the foundation of civil liberty. Hence 
all felt bound to follow the lead of their state; and when 



UNITED ST A T E S 



the president of the new Confederacy issued his call 
for men, it was answered, as in the north, by overflow- 
\'il^ luinilicrs. 
Thj' bonier o-,3 Those southern states which had wavered were 
now coiiipelled to make their choice. When Mr. Lincoln 
called for troops the Governors of Arkansas. Virginia, 
North Carolina ami Tennessee refused to obey. North 
Carolina and Arkansas then seceded, and joined the 
Confederacy. In Tennessee and Virginia "military 
leagues" were formed with the Confederate states, by 
which Confederate troops were allowed to take pos- 
session of their territory, and by their aid the ques- 
tion of secession was submitted to popular vote. 
Thus the secession of these two states was accom- 
plished in part, but not wholly. The people of the 
Alleghany mountains were loyal to the union; in east- 
ern Tennessee they aided the Federals as much as 
possible; the opposition to secession was sostiong in 
the western counties of Virginia that the inhabitants 
refused to obey the convention which passed the ordi- 
nance; they chose a legislature which claimed to be the 
true government, and at last formed a new state which 
was admitted into the union in 18(i3 under the name of 
West Virginia. I^ven thus curtailed, Virginia was a 
most important accession to the confederacy; it in- 
creased its military strength greatly, and at once 
became the chief battleground of the war. The con- 
federate government was moved from Montgomery to 
Richmond; and since Washington was separated only 
by the Potomac from the confederacy, it was clear that 
the great contest would be fought in the country which 
lay between the two capitals. Moreover, Virginia was 
the richest and greatest of the slave states, and fur- 
nished the southern army with its ablest leaders, many 
of whom — such as Lee, Jackson, Johnston, and Ewell — 
were opposed to secession, but thought it right to shape 
their own course by that of their state. 

254. There was a strong anti-union element in Mis- 
souri. Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware, and the 
most momentous results — involving, doubtless, the suc- 
cess of the tmion cause — were involved in the action 
they would now take. Aside from Virginia, Missouri 
was the most powerful slave state, and her geograph- 
ical position, with that of Kentucky and Maryland, was 
of incalculable military importance. Had these three 
states united with the confederacy it might have won 
the prize for which it was contending — independence. 
Missouri, however, did not break away, though the 
issue was for some time doubtful with her. Delaware 
cast her lot with the union. In Maryland and Ken- 
tucky efforts were made to maintain neutrality, but 
they were soon induced to declare in favor of the 
Federal government. Kentucky, however, had some 
of her sons in the southern ranks, among whom was 
John C. Breckinridge, a former vice-president of the 
United states, who became an officer in the confeder- 
ate army. 
Militury 25.5. The Federal government was in no want of 
ot'thc'^''" men, but the action of Secretary Floyd hi>d almost 
nortli. stripped it of arms to equip them. Agents were sent 
abroad to purchase guns, private manufactories were 
worked day and night to produce them, and in a short 
time the administration was able to call more men into 
the field. The northern people were unrnilitary in 
their habits and thoughts. They had a militia, but it 
was poorly organized. The Mexican war had drawn 
few volunteers from this section, and the United States 
army was very small and imperifectly equipped. The 
early action of the Confederates also had weakened it. 
There was, however, a greater population to draw from 
than at the south. There was also a wider range of 
industry to supply the necessary funds to carry on the 
war. The agricultural products of the United States 
far exceeded in volume those of any other country, and 
in merchant shipping it was only second to <!reat 
Britain. Between 1830 and 1860 American civilization 



had shown a wonderful growth in all directions — in 
facilities of travel and exchange, in home comforts, in 
inanufaclures, in literature and art, and especially in 
the developtnent and building up of that moral sense 
which enabled the country to pass so successfully 
through the trying times of the next four years. 

2.56. Hut this material and moral progress was mostly Of the 
confined to the north. The south was far from possess- '"""'^ 
ing an equal share in it. Uer case was one of arrested 
developement, not from any natural inferiority in the 
people, but simply because "their moral sense and spirit 
of enterprise had been blighted by the curse of slavery. 
Labor was held to be degrading, and those who carried 
on the few branches of industry were considered an 
inferior caste; railroads, commerce and manufactures 
could not thrive, and hence there was but little immigra- 
tion; the progressive ideas from the modern world 
outside were opposed from the fear that they might 
prove injurious to the pet institution of slavery. Thus 
the advance of civilization was checked, and whatever 
might have conduced to the material welfare of the 
south was kept away as far as possible. In the north 
the rising man was marked by the extent of his business 
relations; in the south by his ability to buy slaves, 
which assured him nearly always an entrance into the 
the ranks of the dominant class. This class funnshed 
the representatives and senators in Congress, the 
governors, and all the officeholders over which theslave 
power had control. Thus its ablest and best men com- 
bined to defend certain tendencies which were foreign 
and hostile to those of the rest of the country, and of the 
world in general. With such odds against it, the struggle 
of the south during the four years of war showed of 
what heroic stuff its people were made. 

257. The first blood of the war was shed in the streets First blood* 
of Baltimore. Massachusetts and Pennsylvania troops "' """ ""■• 
on their way to Washington were attacked by a Balti- 
more mob (April 19, 1861,) and some of the soldiers 
killed. The popidacc, which sympathized with the 
south, declared that no northern troops should pass 
through the city. The railroad was blocked up, bridges 
were burned, telegraph wires were cut, and all direct 
coinnuinication with the north was stopped, until the 
presiilent sent a military force from Annapolis to occupy 
Baltimore and keep the mail open. In a short time the 
active hostility of the people was overcome, and the 
national capitol made secure. By July 4 the confeder- 
ates had pushed their forces as far as Manassas Junction, 
about thirty miles from Washington. Their line of 
defence was already marked out, and its length has 
been estimated at eleven thousand miles, including the 
Atlantic and gulf coasts. It comprised the left bank of 
the Potomac from Fortress Monroe nearly to Washing- 
ington; from thence it extended to Harper's Ferry, on 
through the mountains of western Virginia and the 
southern part of Kcniuck^-, crossing the Mississippi a 
short distance below Cairo. From this point its direc- 
tion was through southern Missouri to the eastern 
bordor of Kansas; then southwest, through the Indian 
territory, and along the northern boundary of Texas 
to the Rio Grande. The area contained within this 
interior line and the sea-coast was about 800,000 square 
miles, with a population of over !),Ot)0.0(lO. It com- 
prised, also, the territory devoted totheraisingof cotton, 
an article necessary to the manufacturing inlcrests of 
the world. It was upon this production tb,at tin; south 
relied largely for aid; all the munitions of war could be 
procured in exchange for it; and she believed it would 
be a powerful factor in preventing the blockading of 
her ports. 

25S. In consideration of this fact, and also that the tih' 
confe<lerate line of sea-coast was over three thousand l)li"k«<ie. 
miles in length, with but one port of refuge for a 
blockading lleet about the middle of the line, it scarcely 
seemed possible that a blockade could be maintained 
with any marked degree of success. Nevertheless, 



UNITED tiT A 1^ E S 



But! if. f 

Bull l;;i:i. 



Ihe president issued a proclamatinn (April 19, 18til) 
declaring a blocliade of all the southern ports, anil the 
Federal government proceeded to purchase and arm a 
large number of merchant vessels. But it could not at 
once bring together a navy powerful enough to keep 
vessels from entering or leaving the blockaded por:s. 
The south not only sent out vessels laden with colton 
to the West Indies and to Eumjie, Imt receivi d in 
return military supplies of all kinds. Upon the ai i ear- 
ance of Mr. Lincoln's blockade proclamation, Mr. 
Davis issued one also, granting letters of marque and 
reprisal to private ves-^els, against the commerce of the 
United States. The governments of Great Britain and 
France now issued proclamations of neutrality, thus 
making the contest between the north and the south a 
civil -war, according to subseqeni decisions of the 
su|ircuie court. 
Congress. 3,^,9. At the meeting of Congress (July 4, 1861) the 
Keimblicans had a majority in both branches, the free 
states and border stales only, being represented. The 
house voted to devote its time solely to the business 
connected with the war. It supported the president's 
proclamation closing the southern ports against com- 
merce. Bills were passed to define and punish con- 
spiracy against the United States, and to confiscate 
all private property, including slaves, employed against 
the Federal government; to authorize a loan; to call out 
5U0.000 volunteers, and to appropriate money for the 
army and navy. During this session occurred the first 
battle of Bull Run (.luly 21, 1861). General Scott had 
been appointed commander-in-chief of the union forces. 
The first military movements were in the mountains of 
western Virginia, and the s\icceS3 of the union army 
there led many people to suppose that in a short time 
the rebellious states would be compelled to obedience. 
Mr. Seward, who was secretary of state, was especially 
cheerful, and promised that the war should be over in 
ninety days. The newspapers and people generally 
urged an immediate movement upon Richmond. Very 
few had any knowledge of the difticulties before 
them, and General Scott, pressed by public opinion, 
gave the order to advance. This resulted in the first 
Berious battle of the war. The union forces were 
defeated, and retreated in a panic upon Washington. 
Both armies were yet so new in military training that 
the confederates gained ncthing from their success. 
Effpct of 260. This disaster opened the eyes of the north, and 
the difiat. jjjg country settled down into a more serious temper. 
Congress was, more than ever, stimulated to increased 
energy, and pledged itself to vote any amount of money 
and any number of men necessary to maintain the 
union. Propositions to consider negotiations for peace 
were constantly offered by extreme Democrats, and as 
constantly rejected by large majorities, on the ground 
that negotiation with armed rebellion was <inconstitu- 
tional. General Scott, having resigned the command 
of the northern armies on account of his age and infir- 
mity, was succeeded by General George B. McClellan, 
whose successful campaign in western Virginia had 
given him a high reputation throughout the army. 
He had a genius for organization, and possessed the 
unbounded confidence of the people. He immediately 
set about forming the first great army of the war — 
the Army of the Potomac — at Alexandria, in prepara- 
tion for a second advance. But the advance was 
delayed much too long to suit the impatience of the 
people and the administration; and as the winter of 
1861 63 passed away without any forward movement, 
the expressions of dissatisfaction became louder and 
CViiifcd- more general. The confederacy also spent the summer 
eratearmy. and autumn of 1861 in organizing its northern Army 

of Virginia, under General Beauregard. 

Ball's 361. In the autumn of 1861 a portion of General 

Hinff. Stone's command on the Upper Potomac was sent on a 

reconnoissance into Virginia, under Colonel Baker, 

and, being attacked by the confederate general, Evans, 



The neatral 

states. 



McOl.'l 
in corn 
muiid. 



Wilson's 
C'rci'k. 



Lexington. 



Kentucky. 



at Ball's Bluff, was disastrously defeated. Colonel 
Baker was among the killed. Although Missouri had 
not seceded, a strong party, with which the governor 
was acting, wished to carry it over to the confederacy. 
A confederate camp near St. Louis was broken up 
by Captain Lyon, of the regulars, and the St. Louis 
arsenal was saved to the government. The state was 
afterward invaded by confederates from Arkansas, 
who Were di feated by Lyon (now a general) at Boone- 
ville, June 17, and by Sigel at Carthage, July 5. A 
large force of confederates under McCullough and 
Price attacked Lyon at Wilson's Creek (August 10) 
Lyon was killed, and his command fell back toward 
the center of the state. Price with 20.000 men then 
attacked Lexington, which was garrisoned by 3.000 
federal troops under Colonel Midligan. After an heroic 
defense of three days the little garrison was compelled 
to surrender (September 20) after their water supply 
had been cut off for forty-eight hours. General Fre- 
mont was now a])pointed to the ci'mmand of the 
western department. He drove Price into the south- 
west corner of the state, and was about to give battle 
when he was superseded by General Hunter (Novem- 
ber 2). Hunter retreated to St. Louis, with Price in 
pursuit; but in a fortnight Hunter was replaced by 
Halleck, and Price was driven into Arkansas. Ken- 
tucky, like Missouri, was distracted by dissensions 
among its own people, and by armies on both sides. 
General Polk of the confederate army occupied Hick- 
man and Columbus, towns on the Mississippi. There 
was also a confederate force at Belmont, Missouri, 
opposite Columbus. Ulysses S. Grant, recently 
iippoinled a brigadier-general of volunteers, now first 
came into notice. He drove the confederates out of 
Belmont (November 7), but was unable to hold the 
town because it was commanded by the fortifications 
of Columbus. 

262. From the beginning of the war, the federal 
government was embarrassed by the question of fugi- 
tive slaves. Congress had passed the act confiscating 
slaves employed in service hostile to the United States. 
While General Fremont was in command of the f<irces 
of the west, he had issued a proclamation declaring 
the slaves of Missouri confederates free men, but this 
was counterman<ied by President Lincoln, who did not 
wish to estrange those slave-holders, especially in 
Kentucky, who were still loyal to the union. In Vir- 
ginia, General Benjamin F. Butler had declared that 
slaves were " contraband of war," and therefore liable 
to confiscation by military law. But as yet the dispo- 
sition of t'ue north was to subdue the south without 
interfering with slavery; and some union commanders 
restored to their masters the slaves who had escaped 
into the federal lines. 

363. Formidable expeditions were fitted out to 
recapture southern harbors. A combined land and 
naval force, under General Butler and Commodore 
Stringham reduced and occupied two forts at Hatteras 
Inlet, North Carolina, at the entrance to Albemarle and 
Pamlico Sounds (August 39), and Port Iloyal harbor, 
near Beaufort, South Carolina, was secured through 
the reduction of Forts Walker and Beauregard by the 
fieet under Commodore Dupont (November 7), and a 
land force under General Thomas W. Sherman. These 
successes were of great value to the Federal govern- 
ment. They not only closed important southern ports, 
but they furnished convenient stations for the 
blockading fieet. The "paper blockade," as it had 
been called, was soon made a very effective one along 
the whole length of the southern coast from the Poto- 
mac to the Rio Grande, an achievement which by 
many had been deemed impossible. Still, in spite of 
the watchfulness of the federal navy, several confed- 
erate men-of-war and privateers sailed out of port, and 
did much damage to merchant ships. The practice of Blockade 
"running the blockade" became a very profitable running. 



Fugitive 
slaves. 



Operations 
on the 
coast. 



u .N i '1^ J>: i) >s 'r A T ]■: s 



business; auJ notwilhslaiuliu^' tliu dun^'er tif c;iptuiT, 
wliicb was the case iu uuuiy instances, Itie profits on a 
single successful voviis<^' were so jjreal that adventurers 
found tbcy could allord to take the risk. 
Fnrwvii 2(J4 As has been staled, the soulb depended largely 

relations. „p„„ msisiniiQc from abroad, aid the southern leaders 
still chniff to the hope tlial they could prevail upon 
Great Britain and France to recoijuizc the independence 
of the confederacy. Two commitsioners, therefore. 
Messrs. Ma.son anil Slidell. were sent by the confeder- 
ate fiovernuient to London' and Paris. They ran the 
blockaile, made their way to Havana, and tlun em- 
barked for England in the British niailsleamer Trent. 
Some distance out, the Trent was overhauled by an 
American tnnn of-wnr under Captain Wilkes, the two 
comrnissioiHts were taken off tNovember, llSGl), and 
carried lo Bo-ion harbor, where the}' were imprisoned 
in Fori Warren. This action, which was ilUi.:Hl and 
unauthorized, caused great excitement in Kngland, and 
came very near causing a collision between the two 
countries. Ij<:)rd Palmerslon made a perenipto-y de- 
mand for the surrender of the prisoners. The American 
government had already disa%'0wed the act of Captain 
Wilkes, which, though it was justified by tlii^ British 
claim of the ■"right of search," was contrary to Ameri- 
can principles. The confederate envoys were there- 
fore promptly released and sent to England. Just 
before this occurrence President Lincoln reipiested two 
confidential agents to visit Prance and England in 
• order to help the federal cause and avert the danger 
of foreign war by their influence with the governments 
and with persons of distinction. The persons selected 
for this delicate and important trust were Archbishop 
Hugh's, of New York, and jNlr. Thurlow W\'ed. They 
sailed in November and retuiered very valuable service, 
I Mr. Weed in England, and the archbishop in France. 

. St-couu 2C5. At the beginning of 18(J3 the war had a.ssnmed 

, y'jarff till- yj^gj pfQp,jP^iy,-,g_ rpjjy number of men under arms on 
both sides was nearly a million. The confederates 
held possession of the Mississippi river from the gulf 
of Mexico to the southern boundary of Kentucky, and 
occujied a chain of strong positions extending thence 
til rough Tennessee and Kentucky to the southwestern 
corner of Virginia. Between the Alleghanies and the 
Blue I{idge v.-as il:e fertile Shenandoah valley, often dis- 
puted l)y both armies. At the east the confederates 
v.ere posted in great force between the Potomac and 
the Rappahannock. Now that Delaware, Maryland, 
Kentucky and Missouri had been saved to the union, 
it was certain that the battle would be fought out in 
the territory to the south of them. The plan of the 
Federal authorities was to open the Mississippi and 
penetrate the confederate line at the west, while at the 
same time McClellan attacked Richmond, and a land 
and naval force continued the process of capturing the 
southern ports on the Atlantic coast. Simon Cameron, 
who had been secretary of war, resigned January 20, 
18G2. and was succeeded by Edwin M. Stanton. All 
the Federal armies were lo move simultaneously on 
the 22d of February, Washington's birthday, but this 
order could not be strictly carried out. 
Thcwiiriii 2CG. The lirst advance was made in the west, Gen- 
ibe wc^l. eral Grant hud entered Kentucky from Illinois, and 
succeeded in securing the mouths of the Tennessee and 
(.'umberland rivers, two streams which were to serve 
as military highways by which the Federal armies 
were to iienelrale into the heart of the confederacy. 
The chief confederate positions between the Mississippi 
river and the Alleghany mountains were Fort lli'nry 
on the Tennessee, Fort Donelson on the Cumhi-rlaMd 
(both in Tennessee), and Bowling Green and Mill Spring 
in southern Kentucky. This line of defense was in 
command of General Sidney Johnston, with headquar- 
ters at Bowling Green. Here he was confronted by 
General Buell's army, the middle one of the three great ! 
Federal armies, which came to be known as the Army 



of the Cumberland. Forts Henry and Donelson formed 
the center of the confi dera'e line, and was confronte<l 
by Grant, whose troojis afterwards formed the army of 
the Tennessee. In Jaiuiary, 18G2, General Thomas 
with the left of Buell's force thoroughly defeated the 
confederate right at Mill Spring. General Grant, 
aided liy the river fleet under Commodore Foote, now 
assailed the center. Fort Henry was first attacked Fi>rtsli. 
and reduced by the gunboats before Grant had time to '^"'' ''"' 
invest it. The combined forces then assaulted Fort ^' "' 
Donelson, which after a brave resistance was captured 
(February Hi) with l.'i.OOO prisoners. The center of the 
confederate line was now pierced, and Johnston and 
Polk were compelled to retreat for fear of being cut off. 
Columbus, Bowling Gre<'n and Nashville were evacu- 
ated, and the whole of Kentucky and most of Tennes- 
see was in the hands of the Federals. General Buell 
occupied Nashville; a strong union party showed itself 
in Tennessee, and Senator Andrew Johnson was ap- 
pointed military governor of the state. 

2(i7. The confederates formed their second line of 
defense along the railroad from Memphis to Chatta- 
nooga, and began massing their forces at Corinth. The 
armies of Grant and liuell were to unite and attack the 
enemy in his new jKisilion. Grant moved up the Ten- 
nessee river and halted at Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh. 
about twenty miles i'nnn Corinth, there to await the 
arrival of Biiell. Here Johnston made abrilliant attack pittsburg 
upon him with the intention of crushing him before Laudiug. 
Buell could come up. A terrible battle was fought 
(April G and 7.) in which the confederate leader, who 
was one of the slain, came very near effecting his pur- 
pose. But the federal forces, though driven l)ack at 
nearly every iioint, stubbornly resisted, and at the close 
of the first day, Buell's advance guard came upon the 
scene. The ne.xt morning. Grant, now reinforced, as- 
sumed theofl'ensive; and after a fight of several hours, 
the confederates were driven back to Corinth. 

2G8. While these operations were taking place in "n tin.- Mn 
Tennessee, Commodore Foote with his gun-boats '*'*''''''''• 
entered the Mississippi with a small army under Pope, 
and captured Lsland Number Ten on the ihiy of Grant's 
victory at Shiloh. Two months later Fort Pillow was 
abandoned by the confederates, and Memphis at once 
fell into the hands of the union army. The victory at 
Shiloh decided the fate of Corinth, an important rail- 
road center, though it was not captured for several 
weeks afterward on account of the slow advances of 
General Halleck, who had assumed command of the 
federal forces at that point. Meanwhile a th et under 
Farragut and Porter, with a land force und. r Butler, 
had been sent to attack New Orleans. Farragut, ran past 
the batteries and forts at the entrance oi' the river, 
attacked and destroyed the ironclads which met him, 
and captured New Orleans, which was occupied by the New Or- 
army under Butler. Farragut with a part of his fleet ''""is'i'l'^ja 
then pushed up the river, clearing away all obstacles, 
passed the batteries at Vicksburg, and met the federal 
gunboats under Captain Davis, above. Thus the war 
in the west had been, so far, marked by an almost 
unbroken series of victories for the federal armies. At 
the northern boundary of the state of Mississippi the 
union advance stopped for a time, but all was held that 
had been won. To gain control of the great river, it 
was necessrry totake Vicksburg, with its outpost. Port 
Hudson, which, between them, commanded the entrance 
lo the Red river, and thus kept open the communica- 
tions of the eastern pari of the confederacy with its 
slates of Texas, Louisiana and Arkan-;as. To capture 
Vicksburg wouldcul off these states, andgreally cripple 
the fighting powi'r of the confederate government. 
The occupation of Chattanooga was also necessary to 
the success of the union arms. It would open the way 
into Georgia, and prevent the confederates from recov 
ering any of the lost ground in Tennessee. NiMimrMi 

2011. While the south hadmit with defeat in U-e v.'est, ii'.rnm«i'. 



UI^ITED STATES 



it was encouraged by a success in Hampton Roads. 
The confederates bad taken the Merrimac, a former 
frigate of the United Slates navy, and transformed her 
into an ironclad ram, -with sloping sides and huge iron 
beak. On March 8, 1863, this strange-looking craft 
entered Hampton Roads and attacked the federal 
fleet lying there, which consisted of live wooden ships 
of war. The Merrimac destroyed the Cumberland, and 
also compelled the frigate Congress to surrender. At 
night she went back to Norfolk. The next morning she 
was seen coming out again to complete the work of 
destruction. Suddenly the Monitor, a turreted ironclad 
vessel, advanced to meet her, and after an obstinate 
engagement of several hours the Merrimac was com- 
pelled to retire. These encounters were remarkable as 
the first engagements between ironclads and wooden 
vessels and between two ironclads. The result caused a 
revolution in the navies of the world; the day of wooden 
war- vessels was seen to be over, and all the great pow- 
ers began at once the construction of iron and steel 
vessels. 
<f rL'iiiia 270. The military operations in Virginia during the 
campaign, y^^j. jggg offered a strong contrast to the course of 
events in the west. This was owing partly, no doubt, 
to the superior ability of the confederate commanders, 
as compared with their antagonists, partly becau.se on 
the union side military affairs were too much inter- 
mingled with politics. While General McClellan was 
organizing a splendid army of 200.000 men near Wash- 
ington, General Banks was ordered to occupy the 
andoail™ Shenandoah valley. He began his advance in Feb- 
valiey. ruary, and having, as he supposed, cleared the valley 
of the enemy, set out with hi.'! own corps proper to 
join McClellan. As soon as he was gone. General 
Jackson, popularly known as "Stonewall Jackson,'' 
hastened to attack the division of Shields which re- 
mained in the valley. After a desperate battle at 
Kearnstown (March 23), Jackson was compelled to 
retire. Banks returned to the valley and Shields was 
sent to join McDowell at Fredericksburg. General 
Fremont now approached from the west, in order to 
unite with Banks near Stanton. To prevent this Jack- 
son formed the plan of attacking the Federal forces in 
detail. He nearly succeeded in getting into the rear of 
the main body with a much larger army than Banks 
could muster. By a hurried retreat Banks reached and 
crossed the Potomac, with the confederate cavalry in 
close pursuit. Shields hastened back to the valley, but 
his advance guard was defeated at Port Republic 
(June 8) by Jackson, who, the same day, had checked 
Fremont at Cross Keys. Having thus saved the valley 
to the confederates, and obliged the government at 
Washington to detain for the defense of the capital a 
large body of troops which McClellan greatly needed 
for other duty, Jackson joined the confederate army in 
front of Richmond. 
-r'jc.\rmy 37i. General McClellan concentrated the Army of the 
Pot*TOac Potomac between Washington and Manasses, as if 
intending to advance against Richmond by that route. 
He then withdrew his forces and went by water to 
Fortress Monroe in order to advance up the peuiusula 
between the James and York rivers. Here he was held 
in check for a month by Johnston at Yorktown, and 
when McClellan was ready to take the place, the con- 
federates retreated toward Richmond. The union 
forces followed, and both armies concentrated around 
Richmond. McClellan gained the battles of Williams- 
burg (May 5), and West Point (May 9), and advanced 
within seven miles of the city. A panic broke out in 
the southern capital, and the confederate Congress ad- 
journed in haste. It wag just at this time that Stone- 
wall Jackson, by his brilliant and daring exploits in the 
Shenandoah valley, obliged the federal government to 
keep in front of Washington a corps under McDowell 
which was about to co-operate with McClellan by way 
of Fredericksburg. The movements of McClellan in- 



volved the separation of the two wings of his army by 
the little river Chickahominy, which by a sudden rise 
was changed into a wide stream. The confederates 
under Johnston at once attacked the union left wing at 
Fair Oaks and Seven Pines. A tierce battle ensued. Fair Oaks 
lasting two days; the result, however, was a union vie- p"'' Seven 
tory. Johnston was wounded, and was succeeded by '""^^^ 
Robert E. Lee, who retained command of the army of 
Virginia during the rest of the war. 

273. The absence of McDowell, who was expected to 
support McClellan's right, compelled a change in the 
whole plan of operations. Although Lee had been 
repulsed in an attack on the Federal lines at Mechanics- 
ville (June 2G), he fell upon them again at Gaines Mill, 
the day following, in overwhelming force, and drove 
them across the Chickahominy witli severe loss. Jack- 
son had now reinforced Lee, and McClellan was cut off 
from his base of supplies on York river. Unable to 
reunite his wings and regain his base, the union general 
decided upon the difHcult maneuver of establishing 
another base on the James river. While effecting this 
change, the union troops were hard pressed by Lee and 
and Jackson, who, during the period from June 26 to 
July 1, attacked them at Golding's Farm, S.ivnge's Th'' "Seven 
Station, White Oak Swamp, Glendale, etc., and finally Baftipj, .. 
at Malvern Hill, where the confederates were signally 
repulsed. This was the last of a series of engagements 
known as the "Seven Days' Battles," in the course of 
which McClellan lost over 15,000 men. Lee suffered 
almost as much. The union army had now reached ' 
the James river, and established itself in a position 
from which it could not be driven. 

273. Lee and Jackson then turned their attention 
toward Washington, which was defended by an army 
under General Pope. Pope's forces stretched along 
the Rappahannock and Rapidan to the Shenandoah 
valley. General Banks held a position at the western 
end of the line, and was attacked by Jackson at Cedar 
Mountain. Lee followed close behind, and the two 
generals forced Banks back and then attacked Pope. 
McClellan received orders from Washington to join 
Pope, and a portion of his forces came up in time to 

take part in the second battle of Bull Run, August 29. The eecoud 
Pope's army was put to rout, Washington was threat- su'i'i'^u^, 
ened and the whole country was wild with excitement. 
Lee now led his victorious army across the upper 
Potomac and entered Maryland. McClellan, gathering 
up the remantg of the two defeated armies, followed 
and confronted the confederates at Antietam creek. A 
desperate struggle took place (September 17). It left Amietam 
each army exhausted, but the victory remained with 
the union forces. The confederates recrossed the 
Potomac and retired up the Shenandoah valley. The 
administration was dissatisfied with McClellan's course, 
and his command was given to General Burnside. The 
new commander at once moved toward Richmond, 
proposing to cross the Rappahannock at Fn dericks- 
burg. Here he found Lee posted upon the hills behind 
the town. Burnside crossed the river, and, forming 
his army in three divisions, attempted to storm the 
heights (December 13). It was a day of terrible 
slaughter for the federal troops. They were repulsed Fredericks- 
with the loss of twelve thousand men, the army was "°'^S- 
demoralized and retreated to the north side of the 
river. Burnside was then superseded by General 
Hooker. The close of 1803 thus found the opposing 
armies in nearly the same positions as at the beginning 
of the war. At the north gloom and discouragement 
prevailed. At the state elections held in the autumn 
there was a majority against the administration in 
several of the northern states, and the result of the 
campaigns on the Potomac gave great strength to the 
peace party, which believed that the attempt to sub- 
jugate the south ought to be abandoned. 

274. In June 1862 the great union force at Corinth Campaigns 
was divided, Buell's army marching eastward to seize'"' ewcst. 



UNITE i) S T A T E S 



Chiitlanooga, while Grant's remniiuii at Ciiriiilli till it 
should be ready to start for Vickslmri;. The (-iitDimign 
was so badly managed by llalleik that the eonfed- 
eratcs, under Bragg, seized Chattanooga before IJuell's 
arrival. They were thus enabled to press him so 
vigorously that he had to be largely reinforced from 
Grant's army. Thus weakened. Grant was unable to 
advance for several months. During the summer of 
lH(i2 the confederates made a great elfort to repair the 
disasters they had suffered on the Tennessee and Mis- 
Opcraiious sissippi rivers by an invasion of Kentucky. An army 
in Kin- under Kirby Smith moved from Kno.wille, East Ten- 
incKy. Dcssee, while another, under Bragg, marched from 
Chattanooga. The confederate general, Smith, de- 
feated General Nelson near Ri,-hmond, Kentucky, 
Atigust .'iO, and advanced toward the Ohio, threatening 
Cincinnati. General Lew Walliice. however, com- 
pelled him to fall back to Frankfort, Bragg in the 
meantime hastened loward the city of LouisvilU-. 
Buell, leaving Nashville, by forced marches reached 
the place one day ahead of Braiig. Being reinforced 
he slowly pushed the confederates back. Bragg 
formed a junction with Smith at Frankfort, and four 
days later a severe but indecisive battle was fought at 
Perryville (October 8). The confederates then re- 
treated through Cumberland Gap. 

27-"). Daring Bragg's campaign, the confederate army 
in Mississippi under General Van Dorn made an attempt 
to turn Grant's left wing at Corinth, and thus force liim' 
back down the Tennessee river. This wing was coni- 
maili d by General liosecrans, who defeated Price at 
luka and luk.i, a few miles from Corinth, September 19. On 
Corinih. October 4, Van Dorn and Price together attacked Cor- 
inth, but were repulsed by liosecrans with a loss of 
five thousand men, and pursued forty miles. Soon after 
this Kosecrans supersedt^d Buell in command of the 
army of the Cumbcrlaud. Bragg had advanced to 
Murfreesborough, in central Tennessee. There Kose- 
crans attacked him (December 31), and a bloody battle 
was fought, in which 40,(100 men were engaged on each 
side, and each lost more than 10,000. This engagement 
Stone river, is generally known as the battle of Stone river. It was 
inde(■l^ive. On .lanuary 2, lMti3 Bragg renewed the 
atiack with great vigor, but this time he was signally 
defeated and compelled to retire to Chattanooga. 

27G. While these battles were being fought. Grant 
had begun his first movement against the strong and 
important post of Vicksburg, on the Mississippi. His 
plan was to march from tjuckson. Mississippi, while 
Sherman, with his 40,000 men, and Porter with a lleet 
of gunboats, descended the river from Memphis The 
movements were made according to this arrangement, 
but Van Dorn's cavalry succeeded in gettingin Grant's 
rear and cutting off his supplies. This compelled 
Grant to aband(m his march to Jackson. Sherman 
and Porter allacked the bluffs north of Vicksburg, but 
were repulsed with heavy loss (December 2i(). Hearing 
of (Grant's misfortune they returned to Memphis. 
Affair-' on 277. After Hatteras Inlet to Pamlico Sound had been 
the coosi. captured, it was next resolved toattack the confederate 
posilion on lioanoake Island, which commands the 
pa.ssage between Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds. A 
land and naval expedition under (ieneral Burnside 
and Commodore Goldsborough took the forts and bat- 
teries of the island (February 8, 1.S62), ciiplurcd a con- 
federate Hotilla. occupied jsewbern. North Carolina 
(March 14). and reduced Fort Macon, at Beaufort. April 
25. Kxpeditions from Port Koyal under Commodore 
Dupont took possession of Darien and Brimswick, 
Georgia, and of .lacksonville, Fernandina. and Saint 
Augustine, Florida. April 11. 1«02. General Gilrnnre 
captured Fort Pulaski on the Savannah river. Thus 
the port of Savannah was completely closed, although 
no effort was made for some time to occupy the cilv- 
Congress. 278. During the movements of the armies in 1862, 
Congress had not been idle. It was chielly occupied in 



measures connected with the prosecution of the war- 
Its most far-reaching acticm was in the provision for a 
uniform national currency. At the beginning of the 
war the government had borrowed large sums of money 
to defray expenses, and it continued to borrow, as new 
demands arose. The result was similar to that which 
occurred in the Revolutionary war. The promi-es to 
pay became less valuable as compared with gold, which 
was the standard of value throughout the civilized 
world. The banks in the several states could no 
longer obtain gold without paying a high price for it; 
and at the end of IStil they suspended specie payments. 
In order to provide a currency for the people, a bill 1 Tt 
was passed by congress, early in 180;!. authorizing the <^"''^™'^>'- 
issue of notes by the United Stales treasury. These 
notes received the popular name of "greenbacks," from 
the color of the paper on which tliiy were printed; and 
to insure their success they were declared by Congress 
to be "legal tender" (February 2."), 1862). Earl}' in 
1863. Congress passed an act establishing national banks. National 
Heretofore the states had incorporated all banks, and ''*°''*- 
the bills of each bank were seldom current excc|)t in 
its own neighborhood. By the national banking .system, 
the banks were to be organized, and United States 
bonds deposited at Washington. The banks were then 
permitted to issue notes up to ninety per cent, of the 
value of the bonds deposited, and the notes, Ijeingthus 
secured, became current in every part of the country. 
The national banks are still in operation. A homestead 
bill was passed, which assigned public lands to actual 
settlers at reduced rates. Congress also prohibited 
slavery in the District of Columbia; slaves of insurgent 
were ordered to be confiscated; and the army was for- 
bidden to surrender fugitive slaves to their masters. It 
provided for the construction of a Pacific railroad and 
telegraph, and began a further development of the 
system of granting public lands to railway corporations. 

279. Since the soulh had brought on the war in de- Kmancipa- 
fense of slavery, the abolition sentiment bad spread"""- 
very rapidly in the north, and it had now become sup- 
ported by the mililary needs of the hour. At the 
beginning of the conllict the union leaders and people 
generally had not favored any interference with slavery, 
but circumstances had proved their position to be unten- 
able. President Lincoln, who watched anxiously every 
movement, was convinced that tlie time had come when 
the federal government could no longer attempt to carry 
on the war successfully and spare the system of slavery, 
which was perceived by every discerning man to be at 
the foundation of the confederacy. He therefore 
announced (.September. 1862.) that unless the revolling 
states should return to their allegiance by January 1, 
1863, he should declare the slaves in these states to bo 
free. It was a formnl notice given out of resjiect to 
law; no one seriously expected that it would be regarded 
by the confederate stales. And it was not. They only 
grew more firm in consequence of the action taken. 
On the first day of January, 1863, in accordance with 
his notice, the president issued his celebrated Proclania- Pmclama- ^ 
tion of Emanciiiation. This act caused nuich discussion. '"""• 
Mr. Lincoln could not, legallj'. issue such a declaration, 
for the constitution g.ave him no aulhorily to abolish 
slavery. But he acted on the principle of military 
necessity, advocated by John Quincy Adams in his 
S|)eech of April 14. 1842, in which he said: " Whether 
the war be civil, servile, or foreign. I hiy this down as 
the law of nations: I say that the military authority 
takes for the time the place of all municipal institutions, 
slavery among the rest. Under that slate of things, so 
far from its being true that the states where slavery 
exists h:ive the exclusive management of the subject, 
not only the president of the United States, but the 
commaiuler of the army, has power to order the univer- 
sal emancipation of slaves." However the case may 
be, the president's course was dictated bj' clear common 
sense and wise statesmanship. The events of the pre- 



UNITED STATES 



Negro 
soldiers. 



Third year 
of tbe war. 



Battle of 
Chancel- 
lorsville. 



Invasion of 
Pennsyl- 



Battle of 
Gettysburt; 



The 

Vickwhurg 

campaign. 



ceding summer had shown that the war was far from 
being at an end. The cutting off of the cotton supply 
had been a general calamity, and the distress produced 
in consequence created a fear lest England and France 
should unite in an attempt to put an end to the contest. 
But the proclamation changed all this. By it the strug- 
gle was converted into a crusade against slavery, and 
in this light foreign intervention was now simply im- 
possible, owing to Great Britain's attitude toward 
slavery. Moreover, should the federal government 
be successful, the question of slavery would practically 
be settled forever, for its abolition would be certain 
when the union was re-established. One of the first 
results of the act was the formation of regiments of 
negro soldiers. An attack made by one of these regi- 
ments, under Colonel Shaw, upon Fort Wagner, in 
Charleston harbor, though unsuccessful, showed so 
much bravery that the prejudice against negro soldiers 
disappeared, and great numbers were enrolled. 

280. General Hooker spent three months in reorganiz- 
ing and strengthening the Army of the Potomac. At 
the end of April. 1S63, he began his march toward 
Kichmond with 130,000 men. Sending the sixih corps, 
under Sedgwick, to cross the Rappahannock below 
Fredericksburg, he threw his main body across the 
river a few miles higher up, and before Lee xmderstood 
his purpose he had advanced toChancellor-sville. Here 
Lee won one of the most marked of his victories (May 
1 to 4), with only one-half as many men as Hooker com- 
manded. Jackson made a magnificent attack upon the 
union right, taking it by surprise, and drove it back in 
confusion. Sedgwick, on the left, had carried the 
heights of Fredericksburg and was pushing on toward 
Chancellorsville, when the disaster on the right enabled 
Lee to face him with the main confederate force. Sedg- 
wick was compelled to retire during the night which 
followed the 4th of May, and Hooker recrossed the 
Rappahannock the next night. Hooker's loss was 
16,000; Lee's was 12,000; but the confederates fur- 
ther sustained a severe disaster in the death of Stone- 
wall Jackson. 

281. Lee now repeated the maneuver he had prac- 
ticed after defeating General Pope. Turning Hooker's 
right flank, he pushed on through the western part of 
Maryland into Pennsylvania, so as to threaten Phila- 
delphia, Baltimore, and Washington. There was 
intense alarm at the. north, and reinforcements were 
hurried into Pennsylvania from all quarters. In con- 
sequence of a disagreement with General HalUck, 
Hooker resigned the command of the Army of the 
Potomac, and it was given to General George G. 
Meade. The two hostile armies, each 100,000 strong, 
were now moving in parallel lines, with the Blue Ridge 
and South Moimtain range between them. On the 1st 
of July they came into collision at Gettysburg. A tre- 
mendous battle was fought, lasting until the close of 
July 3. It residted in the defeat of Lee, with a loss of 
nearly 40,000 men; Meade's loss was 24,000. This 
battle was one of the greatest of modern times, the loss 
on both sides being more than one-third of the whole 
number engaged. It was also the turning point of the 
civil war. The south was never able to collect so fine 
an army again, and never recovered from the exhaus- 
tion of the Gettysburg campaign. Lee moved slowly 
back to his old position on the Rapidan, where he and 
Meade held each other in check until the following 
spring. Many in the north were inclined to believe 
that Lee's former successes had been due to Stonewall 
Jackson's ability, and that he had lost his prestige upon 
the death of that brave commander. But the campaigu 
of 1864 was to prove the contrary. 

282. On the next day after the battle of Gettysburg, 
General Grant gained a decisive victory on the Missis- 
sippi. Having failed in several attempts to take 
Vicksburg from the north, he now determined to 
transfer his army to the south side of this strongly 



fortified place To do this it was necessary to cross 
the river, march down its west bank, cross again below 
Vicksburg, and march up the east bank, while the fleet, 
which had run past the batteries of Vicksburg after 
the capture of New Orleans, would have to pass them 
again iu order to transport the army over the river and 
protect the crossing. This plan was carried out in 
April. Commodore Porter performed his task success- 
fully under a heavy fire, and on the 29th of April 
opened a cannonade upon Grand Gulf, at the mouth 
of the Big Black river, where it had been determined 
to attempt a crossing. The confederate batteries here 
proving too strong, the fleet ran past them, also, and 
the crossing was made at Bruinsburg, a few miles 
below. Grant now pushed rapidly forward. The con- 
federates were beaten at Port Gibson, and compelled 
to evacuate Grand Gulf. McPherson and Sherman 
captured Jackson, the capital of Misissippi, and a place 
of great military importance on account of its railway 
connections. The union army then turned, fell upon 
the confederate general, Pemberton, who had marched 
out of Vicksburg to unite with Johnston, defeated him 
at Champion Hills (May 10), and at the crossing of the 
Black river (May 17), and at last shut him up in Vicks- 
burg. Afier a siege of forty-five days Pemberton sur- 
rendered, and the great confederate stronghold of the 
west, with 27,000 prisoners, fell into the hands of the 
victorious Federals. Port Hudson, under siege at the 
same time, could no longer hold out, and the Misissippi, 
as President Lincoln said, "lan unvexed to the sea." 
This was t je heaviest blow that the confederacy had 
as yet received; its whole western zone was now 
virtually conquered, and it became possible to concen- 
trate greater union forces against its middle and eastern 
zones. The news of Gettysburg and Vicksburg made 
the Fourth of July, 1863, a day of rejoicing in the 
north, and of mourning in thousands of bereaved 
homes. 

283. The "Vicksburg campaign marked the decline of 
the confederate fortunes in the west, as the Gettysburg 
campaign did in the east. In the meantime the people 
had learned to give a more careful attention to the 
welfare of the soldiers who were bearing the brunt of 
the conflict. The Sanitary Commission, the Christian 
Commission, and other voluntary associations, had been 
organized, and were doing a grand work for the moral 
and physical needs of the men in the field; and this 
care was not confined solely to northern troops, but 
was often extended to the confederates as well. The 
expenses of the National government for prosecuting 
the war now amounted to $2,000,000 per day on an 
average, and notwithsitauding the heavy taxation 
imposed upon the country the debt had increased to 
$.500,000,000 by June, 18(;2; during 1863 it was double 
that amount; by June, 1864, it had grown to $1,700,000,- 
000; and at the end of August, 186.5, it attained its 
maximum, $2.845,'J(I7,626. But the best of care and 
judgment was exercised in the use of these vast 
expenditures. The army was constantly supplied with 
improved weapons and munitions of war; the block- 
ading fleets were kept in perfect order, and everything 
was done to insure the success of the union arms. 

284. As early as April, 1862, the confederate Con- 
gress had p.assed a conscription act, enrolling iu the 
army all adult white males below a certain age, but as 
the war went on the demand for men became con- 
tinually greater and the conscriptiou was made more 
sweeping. Toward the end of the war every white 
man between the ages of seventeen and fifty five was 
held liable to military service, and in practice the only 
limit was physical incapacity. The federal govern- 
ment also was compelled to take almost a similar 
course. In March. 1803, Congress passed an act for 
the enrollment of all able-bodied male citizens between 
tbe ages of eighteen and forty-five, and the president 
was authorized to make drafts for military service. 



Jaclwson. 



Clmmpioii 
Hills and 
Black River 

Capture of 
Vicksburg. 



The Saiii- 
tiiry and 
Chrif^tian 
CoinniiH- 
sinns. 



Govern- 
Uifut ex- 
penses. 



Con- 
scription. 



U i\ 1 '1' !•: 1 ) S T A ^1^ J'] s 



Draft riot,-* 



Chatia- 
noogiu 



u-ka- 



Look nil t 

^loiiiiiain 
and Mia- 
eionary 
Ridge. 



Charleston 



Confeder- 
ate cruisers 



those between twenty and thirty-five to be tirst called 
upon. Under this law a call for yOO.OllO troops was 
made in May. As the full number was not niiiile up 
by volunteeriiii; a draft was ordered to supply the 
dutieiency. The first attempts to carry it out resulted 
i'l forcible resistance in many places, the most notable 
lieir.g the "ilraft riots" in New York city in July, just 
ai'ier the bailie of Gettysburjr. These riots lasted four 
(lays in that city. During: this time New York was in 
the hands of a lawless niob. many shoekini: murders 
were committed and $2,000.(11)0 worth of property was 
destroyed. All opposition was at lenifth ])ut down, 
l)ut exemptions and subsiilute purchases were freely 
permitted, and the sttiles endeavored to fill their re- 
spective quotas as far as possible by offering bounties 
as a stimulus to volunteering. 

285. After his renowned victory near Murfrecsboro, 
Rosecrans remained quiet for a perioil, preparing for a 
new campaign. Late in June he began a series of 
skillful movements against Hragg which compelled the 
confederate general to fall back upon Chattanooga. 
Early in September Rosecrans forced hiui to evacuate 
the place by threatening his communications. The 
union general followed him across the Tennessee 
river and was thus beyond the strong position of 
Chattanooga. General Bragg, having been heavily 
reinforced from Virginia, turned at Chickamauga 
creek to give battle. A severe engagement was fought 
(September 17-20, 18G3) in which Lougstreet routed the 
right of the union forces, but the wonderful skill and 
braverj' of General Thomas, who commanded the left 
wing, saved the federal army and secured its retreat to 
Chattanooga. Bragg having gained possession of the 
mountains around the place cut off almost all avenues 
of further retreat and laid siege to Chattanooga. The 
governnient at Washington had committed the mistake 
of dividing the union forces, for while Rosecrans was 
left to face an army greall3' superior in numbers, under 
General Bragg, General Burnside was sent into east 
Tennessee with an independent command. Bragg was 
now so sure of Rosecrans' defeat that he dispaiched 
Long-itreet with a part of his army to attack l!urnside 
at Kno.xville. In October Rosecrans was superseded 
by Thomas, and Grant was jiut in command of all the 
western armies. lie was joined at Chattanooga by two 
corps under Hooker from the Potomac. General 
Shermau came up from Vicksburg with a greater part 
of the army of the Tennessee. Bragc's positions on 
Lookout MoiMilain and .Missionary Ridge were now 
assaulted. The former was successfully stormed by 
Hooker (November 24), part of the fighting taking- 
place amid.-t a thick mist which covered the summit, 
hence this has been called the "battle above the 
clouds." On the ne.xt day Missionary Ridge was car- 
ried by the main army. Hooker on the rigiit, Thomas 
in toe center and Sherman on the left. Bragg was 
driven from all his positions back to Djillon and was 
soon afterward superseded by (General J. E. Johnston. 
Longstreet raise<i the siege of Kno.wille and retreated 
across the mountains into V'irginia to join Lee. 

280. Many attempts had been made to reduce Charles- 
ton, Souih Carolina, the strongest, as well as the most 
important of the southern seaports, nut without suc- 
less. At length Fort Wagner was taken (September 7) 
after a tremendous bombardment by the Federal fieet 
and GiUmore's baiterie<; Fort Sumter, also, was reduced 
to ruins. The bh.ckading vessels were thus enabled to 
enter the liarlior. and the port of Charleston was 
entirely closed. Taking advantage of every hxiphole 
in the British foreign enlistment act, the confederale 
autboriiii 3 h.id succeeded in fitting out several formida- 
ble cruisers, which, in the course of the year 1H(!3. did 
immense damage to American comnnrce. Whenever 
they were closely pursued by Unileil States vessels tbey 
took refuge in neutral ports, and lbei\ put out to sea 
again upon the first favorable opportuniiy. The most 



active ones were the Florida, the Alabama and t'le 
Oeorijiii. The Florida, built at Liverpool, after having 
captured twenty one vessels, was seized in the harbor 
of Bohiii, Brazil (October, 1864). The O'-orgia, built 
at Glasgow, put to sea in April, but was captured after 
a short cruise by the United Slates frigate Niagara. 
The most important of the confederate cruisers was 
the Alabama. She was built at Liverpool for the con- 
federate captain, Semracs. The British government 
was urged by the American minister, Mr. Adams, to 
enforce its own laws, and prevent her going to sea; yet 
she was allowed to set sail in July. After destroying 
more than si.xty vessels, .^he was met by the United 
States steamer Kear.nage, commandeil by Captain Win- Tl"- Kear- 
slow, off Cherbourg (June 19, 1S(!1), and afier an l'"ur'8^',.^'^,"|"'' 
action the Alabama was sunk. 

287. At the beginning of 18()4, several detached oper- Miimi- 
ations were carried on which, thenigh attracting much °1'^'"'''""- 
attention at the time, had but little direct bearing upon 
theelosingcampaignsof thewar. General Sherman made 

his raid nearly across the stale of Mississippi, destroy- 
ing railroads, bridges and supiilies. General Seymour, 
leading a union expediti(m into Florida, was defeated. 
General Banks was sent up the Red river to attack 
Shreveport, and bring away cotton. The expedition 
ended in failure and (lisaster. General Rosecrans was 
appointed to command in Missouri. He succeeded in 
repelling an invasion by Price, who was finally driven 
from the state. General Forrest, with a confederate 
force made a raid into Tennessee and Kentuckj', and 
captured Fort Pillow (April 12), where a number of 
negro troops were massacred. 

288. The success of Grant in the west had made him Gnmt 
the chii-f fisnre in the war. In Jlarch. 18(!4. he super- h^ iiieeiwt. 
seded Halleek as comnianderinebief, with the r uik of 
lieutenant-general. He at once took personal direction 

of the campaign against Richmond, while retaining 
Meade in immediate command. The army of the 
Potomac was re-orf;anizi d in three crops, under Han- 
cock, Warren and Sedijwick, to which was soon added 
another under Burnside, while General Philip Sheridan 
was called from the west, and appointed to the com- 
mand of all the cavidry in the eastern army. Lee's 
forces, which comprised the fiower of the soutliern 
troops, had otherwise been divided into three corps, 
under Generals A. P. Hill, Ewell and Longstreet. 
Sherman had been left in command of the three wi-stern SluTman. 
armies of the Ohio, the Cumberland, and ihe Tennes- 
see, and he was to oppo-e Johnston at Dalton. Accord- 
ing to arrangement, a simultaneous advance was made 
in Georgia and Virginia, early in May. The army of 
the Potomac, numbering about 12.').6t)0 men (nearly 
twice as many as Lee's), crossed the Rapidan and 
entered the " \Yildi>rness " on the oilier side. ItwasTin- 
Grant's object to push through this difficult country as ^^'I'deroe^g 
rapidly as possible and gel between Lee's army and 
Richmond. In pursuing the direct route through 
Fredericksburg to Richmond, the union armj' encount- 
ered a series ol strong defensive positions, of which Lee 
availed himself wiih consummate skill. The battles 
began on the 5lh, and continued until the 12lh without 
interruption, both sides fighting with the utmost 
bravery and suffering severely. Lee was steadily 
forced back, and on the 9lh Grant was clear of the 
Wilderness wiili his forces concentrated near Spott- 
sylvania conit-housc. Here there was furious and ob- 
stinate fighting for ten days, with scarcely any inter- 
mission. Then followed the battles of North Anna 
and Cold Harbor in which the union losses were ter- 
rible. Having now reached the Cliickahominy, and 
finding it impossible to break through Lee's lines of 
defeuje, Grant crossed the river, and moving far to the 
right of his adversary, transferred bis army beyond 
the James to a-s lil Richmond from the south. This 
involved the reduction of the sinmgly-fortified town of 
I'etersburg, on the Appomattox, practically a part of p. urBharg: 



UNITED STATES 



Cetiar 
Creek. 



The 

Allan tft 



the defenses of Richmond, from which it was twenty 
miles distant. It also brought the Federal Imes into 
dangerous proximity to Lee's railroad communications 
with the south. At this point, tliereforc, the confeder- 
ate commander stationed the beat part of his troops, 
and stubbornly resisted all Grant's efforts to e.xtend his 
lines further to the southwest or to reach the railroads. 
289 A long siege of Richmond and Petersburg was 
now begun early iu June, but neither army remained in- 
active. Ill July, Lee sent Early into the Shenandoah 
valley, wilh a corps strongenough to menace Washing- 
ingto"n, hoping that Grant might be induced to call off 
troops from Peter-burg. The chief result of Early's 
movement was the burning of Chambersburg, and the 
capture of a quantity of supplies. Grant put Sheridan 
in command of the valley, who defeated Gen Early at 
Winchester (September 19), and at Fisher's Hill two 
days later, after which he destroyed all the rich crops 
in the valley and carried off the can le, so that the con- 
federates might not be tempted to repeat the raid. But 
Early, having obtained fresh troops, suddenly fell upon 
the federals at Cedar Creek (October 19), driving thein 
back in great confusion. Sberidau was absent when 
the battle was fought, but, getting intelligence of it, he 
rode rapidly up the v.alley, rallied his men, who were, 
however, being enheartened by their respective com- 
manders, and scattered Early's forces, which never met 
Sheridan again as a compact army during the remainder 
of the war. 

Meanwhile. Grant had succeeded in getting possession 
of a few miles of the Weldon railroad, upon which Lee 
depended for transportation, but the confederate gen- 
eral brought his supplies in wagons round that portion 
held by the federals. The two armies now remained 
in comparatively the same position until the following 
spring. 

290. The western campaign in 1864 began at the same 
time as Grant's movement in Virginia Sherman ad- 
ssnipaign. .^^^^^^.,1 j-,.,,^ Chattanooga with "lOO.OOO men under 
Thomas, McPlierson, and Schofield. against Johnston's 
force of 75,000. The objective point of the campaign 
was the capture of Atlanta, Georgia, a very strongly 
fortified place about one hundred miles south of Chat- 
tanooga, and the chief manufactory of the confederate 
military supfilies. Johnston, wilh his weaker force. 
dared not risk a regular battle, but h'! made the best use 
of the various diffusive positiom which the rough and 
mountainous cuiniry afforded. By a series of masterly 
flank movements Sherman couipc lied him to evacuate 
one position after anotlier. Severe battles were fought 
at Resaca (Jlay 15), Dallas (May 25), Lost Mountain 
(June 14), and Kenesaw Mountain (June 27). By the 
10th of July Johnston was intrenched behind the de- 
fenses of Atlanta, and the two armies were facing each 
each other wilh the Chattahoochee river between them. 
Johnston's retreat had been conducted with great skill, 
but he was nowsuperseded by Hood (.luly 17). who was 
Operati. ins known as a "tigblinggeneral," Hood atonce proceeded 
•'■*"*""*• to carry out the active policy of the confederate gov- 
ernment, and assumed the offensive. Before the end 
of the month he had made three furious assaults on the 
union li'jes and was repulsed in every one of them. 
The federals, however, sustained a heavy loss in the 
death of General McPherson At leIl^lh, by fine man 
euvering, Sherman succeeded iii gaining the rear of 
Atlanta, and cutting the supply railroads. This obliged 
the confederates to retreat iu all haste, and on the 2d 
of September, Sherman was able to telegraph to Wash- 
ington that Atlanta was won, 
ii,„,li„ 291. Hood, by the direct command of Davis, now 

Tiiir;i-,see. made a fatal mistake, which materiallj' hastened the 
downfall of the confederacy. lie moved northwest- 
ward by Tuscumbia and Florence into middle Tennes- 
see, thinking that Sherman would follow him in order 
to defend that state. But Sherman was no more to be 
controlled by this device than Grant had been by Early's 



raid into the Shenandoah. He divided his army, send- 
ing back part of it under Thomas to take care of Hood, 
while he himself prepared to continue his advance 
through Georgia. Hood, moving northward toward 
Nashville, was met and defeated at Franklin (Novem- 
ber '60), with heavy loss, by Schofield. The confeder- 
ate general arrived at Nashville with about 44.000 men. 
The union forces awaited him there behind the forti- 
fications. Thomas, having completed his preparations, 
suddenly moved out of his works and fell upon the Nashville, 
confederate lines (December 15). The batile la-ted two ) 

days and ended iu the utter rout and demoralization 
of Hood's forces. Thus one of the two great armies of 
the confederacy was scattered, ueveragaia to be united. 
Of all the bailies fought in the course of the war, this 
was the most complete victory. 

292. While these things were going on, the presi- PresiUentml 
denlial election of 18t)4 took place. Some of the nnre "'/^^i'™ 

1.1 1' ■■! .1 1 1 iii»tOI 10D4. 

radical men, dissatisfied with what they called Air. 
Lincoln's timiil and irresolute policy, met in convc iv ion 
(May31) at Cleveland, Ohio, and nominated John C. Fre- 
mont forthe presidency. Mr. Lincoln and Andrew John- 
son werenominaled (June 7) for president and vice-pres 
sident by the Kepubliean National Convenlidu at Balti- 
more. TlieDemocraticNational Convention declared in 
its platform that the inabiliiy of the federal govern men I to 
restore the union by war was demons' rated by four 
years of failure; that the constitution had been violated 
in all its parts under the iilea of military ni cessiiy , and 
that a cessation of hostilities ought to be obtained It 
nominated George B. McClellan and George H. Pendle- 
ton as president and vice president. Ttiis declaration of 
the peace Democracy that the war was a failure, when 
all things were now pointing towadthe final success 
of the north, caused many doubtful vo > s to be cast for 
the Republican candidates, and asssuied their election. 
When the electoral votes were counteil. L ncnln and 
Johnson had received 212, McClellan and Pendleton 21. 

293. Sherman had burned Atlanta, destroyed "^t ^'1,'^,™''^°'* 
railroads and telegraphs in his rear, sent back the sick ^i^,, g^.^ 
and wounded, and much of the baggage, and set out 
(November 14) on his " famous march through Geor- 
gia." His army, 65,000 strong, was spread out over a 
breadth of forty miles, subsisting mainly on the prod- 
uce of the country. For a month scarcely anything 

was heard of him at the north, when he suddenly 
turned up at Savannah, Ga. He haii met with but 
little opposition or. his route. The confedcalcs had 
numerous bodies of troops which might have been con- 
centrated to oppose his march, hut he had threatened 
so many points and kept the enemy in so much doubt 
as to his olijects that Ihey could not tell for which 
point he was making. On December 1.3 Fort McAllis- 
ter was taken by assault, and on the 20th Savannah Savannah, 
was ev.acuaied by the confederates, Sherman sending 
the news id' the capture to president Lincoln as a 
"Christmas gift.'' He also sent word that the confed- 
eracy was nothing but a shell, and that he was ready 
with his victorious army to march northward. 

294 The only important ports, except Galveston, Mobile and 
which remained open to the confederacy in the summer )^^°^'"S' 
of 1864, were Mobile in Alabama, and Wilmington, in 
North Carolina. The forts commanding the entrance 
(0 Mobile Bay were captured (August 5) and the port 
was closed. On January 16, 1865, Wilmington, North 
Carolina, was taken by a combined land and naval 
force, under General 'Terry and Commodore Porter. 
On the day before this event, Sherman had begun his Sherman's 
northward taarch, passing through Columbia, to Fay- [^"north. 
ettcville, North Carolina. This movement had forced 
the evacuation of Charleston and other coast cities, and 
their garrisons had been concentrated under Johnston 
as a last hope. The military support of the confed- 
eracy now rested on the army which Lee commanded 
within the intrenchmen's of Richmond and Petersburg, 
and on the remnant of the wes'crn forces with which 



U i\ i 'L' ]•: 1) S.T AT ]•: ►s 



Full of Ihe 

coiifed- 

erttcy. 



Five Fork! 



Ricbmond. 



Sarrender 
of Lee. 



Surrender 
of John- 

pton. 



Johnston wns tryinir to clieik Shi-rmiiirs iidvnncc. 
tfoiiif sbarp tiirlilinj; UHik pliu-e nurlh of Fiiyftlcviilc. 
but Golilsl)oroiii;li was rciu-lKil Martli'JI, and .Iiilinslo:i 
retreated to Kaleigh. Slu-rman pii^lied on aft<T him, 
but events in Virginia were fast rendering a conlesl in 
North Carolina unnecessary. While the union army 
occui>ie(l (i'lldshorough. Siiernian took a steamer on 
the eoast and luirriedly visited llie .Tames river, where 
he nii't the pre:-iilenl. tlemral (irani and (Jeneral Miade. 
and arranged wilh them llie i)lan of operations for the 
future. During Sliernian's march through North Car- 
olina. Sheridan had Ird a coluniu of cavalry up the 
Shenandoah valley to ilestroy Lee's communications in 
the rear of Richmond. He passed along the James 
river. Ooing great damage to the canal and railroads. 
and joiueil tlie main army in front of Petersburg jusl 
as Sherman arrived there for his conference wilh the 
president and Grant. 

29,5. The situation of Lee was now becoming des- 
perate, lie determined to abandon Petersburg and 
Richmond, move by way of Danville, and effect a 
junction wilh Johnston. With this purpose he made 
one desperate attempt to break the center of the >ini(Ui 
lines at Fort S'eadman, intending under cover of the 
attack to wiihdraw liis force. Tlie effort failed, and 
Lee was repulsed with lieavy loss, (irant resumed his 
attempts to push liis lines further round to the south of 
Peter- liurg. SluTldaii was put in command of the 
extreme left. Here he attacked Lee's right al Five 
Forks (April 1), destroyed the Soulhside railroaii. anil 
maintaiueil his |osition. To avoid being outllankcd 
Lee wasconipellid to lengthen out his line, already too 
ihin. The next morning (April 2) Grant mad(^ a general 
assault, and carried his army within the lines of the 
Petersburg defences. Lee retreated, wilh the intention 
of bringing his forces aiul Johnston's together for a liiial 
Stand, while the advance guard of the union army 
entered Richmond. The confederate authorities 
hastened to escape to Danville, having first set fire to 
the shipping, tobacco warehouses, etc., at Richmond. 
No time was lost in celebrations of the victory. Grant 
pre.-sed on in the pursuit of Lee wilh all vigor. He 
had so disposed the federal army that the e,-cape of 
the confederates was almost impossible. The confed- 
erate forces were headed oft al Apiiomaltox Courl 
House, where Lee surrendered (April i), 18(i.j). The 
terms of surrender offered by Grant wire very generous; 
all private property belonging to ollicers and soldiers 
was to be retained, the men were even allowed to keep 
their horses, " because." Grant said, " they would need 
them for the work on their farms." Officers and mi n 
were at once set free on parole, with the understanding 
that so long as they did not violate iheir parole, nor 
break the laws, they would not be disturbed by the 
federal government. 

296. Sherman had begun his final operations against 
Johnston when the news arrived of the surrender of 
Lee. Johnsion thereupon cnpilulated (April 2(!) on 
much the same terms that had been accorded to the 
confederate army in Virginia, after an unsuccessful 
effort al a more favorable settlement. All llie other 
confedera:e forces in the lirld aNo surrendered, and the 
great civil war came to an end. The news was received 
wilh an oulburst of joy at the north. Mr. Lincoln had 
begun his second term on March 4, 180.5. Al that time 
the end of the struggle was plainly near, and the jiresi- 
dentin his inaugural address had already expressed the 
hope that there would be a reconciliation between the 
two sections. He said : " With malice toward none, 
with charity for all, wilh firmness in the right as C.kI 
gives us to see the right, lei us strive to linish the work 
we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for 
him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow 
and for his orphans; to do all which may achieve and 
cherish a just and a lasting peace among ourselves and 
with all nations." 



297. The pulilic rejoicings over the capture of Rich- A^saBsina 
niond well- clouded by the death of the wise and noble LUicofn 
L'ncoln. He had gone to Ford's theater on theeveniiig 
of A|)ril14, and was silling in his box, when an aclor 
named J. Wilkes Booth entered unperceived and shot 
the president through the head, crying: !The south ia 
avengeil. Sir. Ki'm/xr tyrannin." Almost at the same 
time one of Boot hs accomplices named Payne allem pled 
to assassinate Secretary Seward, who was ill at home, Scward. 
and wounded him serifuisly but not fatally. There bad 
been a plot on the part of .some desperate characters 
when the confederacy fell, to destroy the leaders of the 
federal government, but their plans were accomplished 
in part only. The chief [larties implicated perished 
miserably. Booth and Payne etscaped for a time, but 
were soon caught. Booth was killed while resisting 
arrest. Payne and three ot'hers were hanged, and 
several persons concerned in the plot w.-re sentenced to 
imprisonment. The president lingered a few hours, 
and died wiilmut giving any sign of con.sciousness. His 
death caused the deepest sorrow, not only in the north, 
but in the south as well, and throughout all the civil- 
ized world. He bad won the abiding love and trust of 
the people, and his name will forever be linked wilh 
that of Washington; for he was in many ways the 
second founder of his country, 

29S. Jett'erson Davis, while trying to escape, was .jeficrso* 
captured by a detachment of General J. U. Wilson's '>»*'». 
cavalry at Irwinsville, Georgia, and was sent to For- 
tress Monroe. Here he was confined a close prisoner 
for a liuig time on charge of treason. He was al la>t 
liberated on bail furnished by Horace Gneley and 
others, and all proceedings against him were finally 
abandoned. In fact, the glorious triuniph of the 
government of the United Stales was in no w ise sullied 
by any dismal executions for Ireason. Tlie assa-^ina- 
tion of Ijincoln checked for a tin.e Ihemovement which 
had already begun for the restoration of the siceiling 
states. People who had been ready in ihiir joy to make 
jieace with those who had been leaders iu the con- 
federacy now were ready to believe that the spirit 
which had brought on the warwas unchanged. 1 liere 
was a demand that the laws against Ireason. passed by 
Congress dur'.ig the beat of the war, in l.S(i2, should be 
rigiilly enforced. These laws jirescrilied that the 
punishmi'iit of treason and rebellion should be death, 
or fine and imprisonment. But a wiser ju.liimeiu pre- 
vailed. There was no hanging for treason. The leaders 
of the confederacy were never brought to trial. The 
president of the confederate stales was suffi red to go 
free; and the vicepresident, before his death, became 
an efficient and respected member 'n the Congress of 
the United Stales, For a long time, however, all 
persons who had previously taken oath of allegiance 
to the federal government, and then had broken it by 
joining the confederacy, were debarred _.oin holding 
any oflico under the government of the Uniled Slates. 

299. At the close of the war the feder.d armies num- Number 
bered about 1.1)01), (100 men. of whom nearly 600,000 mi". in t 
were present in the field. The number of confederate "'''"'"■■*• 
soldiers surrendered and paroled was, 174.000, besides 
whom there were G:!.<)U0 prisoners in the hands of the 
Federals. The whole number of men who served on 
the union side during the warwas about l..")O0,000. Of 
these. 90,000 were killed, 1S4,000 died of disease while 
in the service: many thousands more died of wounds or 
sickness after being discharged. The armies of the 
confederacy aresu|)[)osed to have reached I heir strongest 
point al the beginning of 180:i, when they numbered 
about 700.000. There was great dissatisfaction among 
the southern people at the manner in which Jefferson 
Davis conducted the war; and Ihi^ arbitrary attempts of 
the confederate government to force men into the ranks, 
aroused, at last, a spirit of opposition. During the 
latter part of the war desertions had become very fre- 
quent; and this fact, taken in connection with the losses 



UNIT E.I) S T A T E S 



f'onfed- 

eraie 

•inances. 



The ma 

inientl 

meiit. 



in bat'.le, aud from disease, caused a Krcut r.'iliu-tion iii 
the niimeiieal force, so tliat at tlie end of the .siiU!;t;ie, 
it 13 doubtful whether the confederate armi. s contained 
more than 200,000 men. As soon as pos-iSle after 
organized resistance had ceased, the Federal armies 
began to be disbanded. The men were discharged at 
the rate of about 300.000 a month, UO.OOO being retained 
in service as a standing army. 

oOO. The expenses of the Federal government 
amounted at one time to three and a half million dollars 
a day. By August 31. 180.5, the whole debt had reached 
its maximum, amounting to about $3. 84.5, 907. 0'2G. Some 
$800,000,000 of revenue had also been spent mainly on 
the war. Beside the regular outlay by the govern- 
ment enormous sums were spent by states, cities, 
couuties and towns, in bounties to volunteers, and liy 
the sanitary commissions and other societies for the 
comfort of sick and wounded soldiers, and for the 
whole army in general. The expenses of the confeder- 
ate government can never be known. Its debt was 
estimated at about $2,0<H),000.000, but this was wiped 
out liy the fiilure of the confederacy, all its bonds and 
notes beeoniiug worthless. The amount of property 
destroyed by the union aud confeiierate armies can 
scarcely lie estimated, and the money v.a'ue ($2,000,- 
000,000,) of the slaves in the south fell a sacrifice to 
the war. In the United States funds were raised by 
the sale of bonds, the issue of paper money, of "green- 
backs." aud tlie inipositiou of heavy taxes, including 
for some years a tax on incomes. The notes became 
grea'iy depreciated, so that in July. 1864, the price of 
gold in pa[ii-r currency was nearly three dollars. Gold 
aud silver almost disappeared from circulation. 

301. The tinances of the confederacy were in a ruin- 
ous condition long before the end of the war. It could 
make no drafts on the future, by bond issues, and it 
was a very difficult matter to find purchasers for south- 
ern bonds. As expenses increased, they had to be met 
by paper issues, and each issue was accompanied by a 
corresponding decline in value, until a dollar in coin 
was worth fifty dollars in jjaper. Large sums were 
required to buy even the most necessary articles. 
Boots were worth two hundred dollars; shoes, one 
hundred aud twenty-five dollars; coats, three hundred 
and fifty dollars; pantaloons, more than one hundred 
dollars; Hour, two hundred and seventy dollars per 
barrel; iiotatocs, twenty to twenty-five dollars per 
bushel; bacon, ten dollars per pound; meal, sixty-five 
to seventy-five dollars per bushel; butter, sixteen dol- 
lars per pound. Other things were proportionately 
high in price; luxuries of all kinds had disappeared, 
and uhnostthe entij'e population was reduced to ex- 
treme [lovertj-, 

VIII. — THE BESTOR.VTION OP THE UNION. 

302. At the beginning of the war the greater part of 
the northern people was opposed to any interference 
with slavery, and the federal government announced 
its determinatiim not to meddle with the question. But 
the progress of the war compelled it to a different 
course. Hence, firs*, came the Proclamation of Eman- 
cipation; then in February, 18(55, congress passed the 
thirteenth amendment to the constitution, abolishing 
slavery in the United States forever. After the war 
was over the first wish of those who had been most 
prominent in putting down the confederacy was that 
the union should be restored as quickly as possible to 
its former state, with the exception of slavery. It was 
to be many years, however, before the warring sections 
of the union could hit transformed inio a harmonious 
nation. The war had devastated the country in whicli 
it haii been engaged. The people on each side had 
suffered in the Iocs of friends, homo and property, and 
could not at once be reeonciled. The irreat chiinge 
which had taken place in the abolition of slavery 



veaehea to the very foundations of southern society and 
industry. 

303. Upon the death of Mr. Lincoln, Vice-President 
.Tohnson succeeded to the office of president, and to the 
(lltficult task of the reconstruction of the rebellious 
slates. He had lieen selected by the republican party 
as representing the union men of the south. He was 
not, however, in full sympathy with the Itepublicans, 
and it soon became evident that there was a breacli 
between the president and Congress, which constantly 
widened. The first business engaging the attention of 
the government after the restoration of peace was the 
establishments of regular governments in the southern 
states. The president issued various proclamations, in 
which he declared all southern ports open to commerce 
except four in Texas, and granted amnesty and pardon 
to all persons engaged in the rebellion, exce|it fourteen 
specific classes of leaders, who were to make special 
applications for pardon. About the manner of restor- 
ing the state governments, however, a serious quarrel 
arose between the president and Congress. The con- 
stitution made no provision for the readmission of a 
state which had withdrawn from the union, and Jlr. 
Johnson, as a former states right Democrat, held tha' 
the southern states had never been out of the union; 
that the leaders were solely responsible; that as soon as 
the seceded states applied for readmission under such a 
form of government as the constitution required, the 
federiil government was bound to admit them without 
imposing conditions upon subjects over which the con- 
stitution had not expressly given Congress jurisdiction. 
The Republican leaders held that the action of the 
seceded states had deprived them of their rights as 
members of the union; that in the relation they now 
occupied they were in the category of territories seek- 
ing admission to the union, in which case Congress 
could admit or reject them at will. The particular 
question which brought on the controversy was the 
civil status of the negro. The Republicans held that 
slavery had been the cause of the war; that it was now 
abolished; aud that only by giving the freedman the 
right to vote could he be protected, and the results of 
the war secured. They also claimed that no state 
should be admitted until it had granted the right of 
suffrage to the negroes within its borders. Johnson 
held this to be a matter of internal regulation beyond 
the control of Congress. 

304. When Johnson succeeded to the presidency in 
April, 1805, he had a cle:!r field before him, for con- 
gress w:is not to meet until December. Fromi May 9 
to July 13 he appf>inted provisional governor-i for seven 
states, whose duties were to reorganize the govern- 
ments. The state governments were organized, but 
passed such stringent laws In reference to the negroes 
that the Republicans declared it was a worse form of 
slavery than the old. When Congress met in Decem- 
ber, 1865, it was very largely Republican and firmly 
determined to protect the negro against outraee and 
oppression. The fir>t breach between the (.re-ldent 
and the party in power was the veto of the first Freed- 
men's Bureau bill in February, 18(i6, which was 
designed forthewelfare of thecolored peo[iIe. President 
Johnson objected that it had been passed by a congress 
in which the southern states had no representatives. 
The bill failed to pass by a two-thirds vole. Congress 
then passed a civil right's bill in March. 1S66, by which 
freedmen were made citizens of the United States, and 
United States officers were instructed to protect these 
rights in the courts. The president vetoed this bill 
also, th objection being that it interfered with the 
rights of tue states. This bill was passed over the 
veto. To make the bill stronger. Congress adopted the 
Fourteenth Amendment to the constitution (June 16). 
and submitted it to the states, the necessary majoriiy 
of which ratified it. Bmh houses then passed a joint 
resoluil.m that no delegation from any of the stales 



Jolinson aa 
president. 



Qinirrel 
l)et\veen the 
president 
aiKt Con- 

gr. ss. 



Freedraen't 
Bureuu bill 



Civilright'e 
bill. 



The Fonr- 
tec'iith 
jimend- 
nieiU. 



U :n^ I 'IM ; 1 ) S T A T E s 



AdmihMon 
of Nc 



Tcnuri'of 
Office bill. 



liiipeacli- 

lUt'llI of lllf 

pret«iUolit. 



Alaska. 



N**vacia 
Hlid N<- 
bra>ka. 

Gniiit'x 
election 



liiti'ly "1 n lu'llion elioiiltl be received by either the 
feimie or the hou^e until both uiiileil iu declariug auitt 
state a member of the iiiiiou. 

;!().■). The presiilent (li^a|)proved of thtse mea«iire>;, 
and there was now open hostility between the execu- 
tive and eoti;;re>s. In February. 1W7. a bill wa.s passed 
admitiini; Nel)raska as a .state, with the provision that 
it should never enact any law denying the right of 
suffrage to any person because of bis color or race. This 
was vetoed, and passed over the veto. On March 2. 
lx«7, the " bill to provide elVicient government.s li>r the 
ii.surreclionary states." which embodied the congres- 
sional plan of reconstruction, was pa.ssed over the 
president's veto. This bill divided the southern states 
into military districts, each under a luigiidier general, 
who was to preserve order and e.\ercise all the func- 
ti.ms of government vnitil the citizens had fiunieii a 
Slate uovi-rnmeni, rntitied the amendments, and lieen 
admitted to the union. On the same day the Ti'iiiire 
of Oflice bill was passed over the veto. This provided 
that civil ofticers should remain in oflice until the con- 
tirmalion of their successors ; that the niembers of the 
cabinet should be removed only with the consent of the 
senate; thai, while Congress was not in session the 
IiresiiU'Ul might .s».v;)i;i(< (not remove) any otbcial ; and 
ill case the senate at the next session should not ratify 
the suspension, the suspended official should resume 
his office. 

SOU. On August 5, 1867, the president had requested 
Edwin M. Stanton to resign his office as secretary of 
war. Mr. Stanton refused, was suspended, and General 
lirant was appointed to his place. When congress met, 
the senate refused to agree to Stanton's removal. 
General Grant then resigned the office, and Stanton 
again took possession. The president removed him a 
second time, and appointed General Lorenzo Thomas 
to the place. Slanton held tohis office, and sent notice 
to the sjieakcrof the house ; thereupon the house pa.ssed 
a resolution (February 24. 1868). for the impeachment 
of the president. The articles of impeachment accused 
him of disobeying the tenure of office law, and of various 
other oflences. The trial took place according to the 
constitution, members of the house appearing as 
accusers, and the senate acting as judges, with Chief 
JusticeChase, of the supreme court, in the chair. After 
the trial began the president made a tour of the north 
and west, and delivered many violent and passionate 
speeches to the cnwds which assembled to meet him, 
and denounced the congress then sitting as "no con- 
gress." I)ecau!'e of its refusal to admit delegations from 
the southern stales. On these speeches the house 
based additional articles of impeachment. The excit- 
ing trial lasted two months, and ended in May with a 
vote of thirty live for conviction, and nineteen for 
aeiiuittal. Thus there was not a two-thirds majority 
for conviction. The senate adjourned sine die, and a 
verdict of acipiittal was entered. 

307. The Russian possessions in North America, com- 
prising a large and thinlj' i)opulated territory at the 
northwest corner of the continent, were purchased of 
the Russian government by the United States in 1867 
f.ir the sum of $7, 2110.000. This territory is known as 
Alaska Nevada, the thir'y sixth state, was admitted 
durinir Mr. Lincoln's administration (1864); Nebraska, 
the thirty-seventh, was admitted in 1867. In 1868 Gen- 
eral Grant was elected president, as the candidate of 
the Repiililican party, thus sealing the process of the 
reconstniciion; Schuyler Colfax became vice-president. 
The Uemocra'ic candidates were Horatio Seymour, of 
New Vork. and Frank P. Blair, of Missouri. Virginia, 
Mississippi and Texas were the only states of the late 
confederacy which were excluded from this election; 
all the re^l had been reconstrucied and admitted by 
Congress in June, 1868. The Republican candidates 
carried twenty-six of the thirty four voting states. In 
his inaugural nrtilress. General Grant declared that the 



government bonds ouL'ht to be paid in gold, advocated 
a speedy return to sjiecie jtaynients, and made many 
importaiit n-ccunnicndations in reference to public af- 
fiiirs. Regarding the good faith of the nation, he said; 
"To protect the national honor, every dollar of the 
government's inilebledncss should be paid in gold, un- 
less otherwise expiessly stipulated in the contract." 
Congress acted promptly upon his recommendation, and 
on March 18. 1861). an act was jiassed, entitled "An 
Act tostrengihen the public credit." Its language gave -^^i n; 
a iil*dge to the world that the debts of the cou n I ry J|,^!'!|};'|, j|il 
would be paid in coin, unless there were in the obliga in-du. 
tioiis express stipulations to the contrary. 

308. On February 26. 1861). the Fifteenth Amendment Tin- XVih 
to the constitution was passed by Congress. Its adop- ameiidmc-i 
tlon had been previously recommended by Grant. It 
guaranteed the right of suflrage without regard to race, 
color, or previous conditicui of servitude. It was rali- 
lied by the reipiisite three fourths of the states, and de- 
clareil in force .March 30, 1870. In the meantime the 
foreign affairs of the (country had been favorably estab- 
lished. Its ]iromiitness in disarming at the end of the 
war hud put it under no disadvantage in dealing with 
other nations. The successful completion of the At- 
lantic cabl(Ml866) gave a promptness and dispatch to 
diplomacy which was well suited to American methods. 
The most important measure of foreign p<ilicy during 
President (Grant's administration was the treaty with 
(!reatBritain(May 8.1871), known as the Treaty of Wash Treaty of 
ingion. Soon after entering upon his office, the presi ^^,2"''"'^' 
dent had begun 'legotiations, looking to a sctilement of 
the claims made by the L'niled Stales against (ireat Bri- 
tain, arising from the de]iredations upon Aim rican com- 
merce by confederate cruisers titled out in British ports, 
the questions growing out of the Canadian lishery dis- 
putes, and the location of our northern boundary line 
at its junction with the Pacific ocean, which the juris- 
diction of the island of San Juan in controvc rsy. 

30!t. A high joint commission had a-siinbl"d at Tli.' Alalia- 
Washington, eomiiosed of Anieric;in and English 
statesmen, which forniulateii tlieTieuly of AVashinifion, 
and by its terms the claims against Great Britidn. com- 
monly known as the ''Alabama claims." were referred 
to a court of Hrbilration, which held its session at 
Geneva. Switzerland. In September. 1872. it awarded 
the United States the sum of .*l.'),.'jOO, 000, which was 
subseipienlly paid by the British government. The 
fishery cpiestion was referred to arbitration by three 
eommissiiuieis. one to be chosen by the United Slates, 
one by Great Brilaiii. and the third b}' the other two. 
provided they should make a choice wilhm a stated 
time, otherwise the selection to be made by the 
Emperor of Avistria. The two commissioners having 
failed to agree, the third was naiued by the Emperor of 
Austria. The award was unsatisfactory to the United 
Stales. The decision of tile commission was severely 
criticised by the peojile and the press, and the dispute 
has been reopened since from time to time, to the detri- 
ment of both countries. The San Juan (juestion was san Juan, 
referred to the Emperor of Germany as arbitrator with 
sole power. His award fully sustained the claim of the 
United States. 

310. President Grant's first administration had been 
vigorous and progressive, but a number of Republicans 
had become estranged, feeling that they were being 
ignored by the executive. These per^-ons formed them- 
selves into an organizatiim under the name of Liberal Liberal Re- 
Republicans. This'o))position resulted in the nomination publicoiiK. 
of Horace CJieeley for president, and B Gratz Brown 
for vice-president, by the Liberal party (1872). These 
nominations were afterwards adopted by the Demo- 
cratic party. Tlie republican convention renominated 
President Grant, with Henry Wilson as nominee for 
vice pre-id.'Ut. When the election took place Grant 
carried thirty (uie slates with a popular vote of 
3..")97.07n, ihc' largest that had ever been given for any 



tiiaclhiine. 



The Usher; 
qiiesi ion. 



UNITED STATES 



Ro-electioD 
of Gr:iut. 



Rjliltioiis 
with Spain. 



Case of the 

"Vir- 

giiiiut*." 



PMlilical 
troubles* in 
the boutb. 



Lonisiaua. 



president. He received 286 electoral votes, against 66 
which would have been cast for Mr. Greeley had he 
lived. The noted journalist, however, died soon after 
the election. The canvass had been one of the most 
exciting and aggressive in the historj' of the country, 
and abounded in personal attacks on the candidates. 
During President Grant's first term of office the work 
of reconstruction according to the plan settled by 
Congress had been steadily carried out. aud by .luly, 
1870, the work had been accomplished, and all the 
states were again members of the union, although the 
votes of Arkansas and 1 ouisianawere not received by 
Congress in 1873, because of fraud and illegality in the 
election. 

311. The relations between the United States and 
Spain wire frequently disturbed by incidents growing 
out of an insurrection in Cuba, which had lasted for a 
number of years. Several American citizens had been 
arrested by the Spanish authorities, under the pretense 
that they had been furnishing aid to the insurgents, 
and American vessels plying in Cuban waters had been 
subjected to much inconvenience. Ma'ters at length 
culminated in the seizure by Spain (October. 1873), 
without justificat ion. of the American steamer Virgiiiius. 
This outrage created intense excitement in the United 
States, atid many statesmen were clamorous for war; 
but the president took more pacific measures, and, by 
acting with promptness and firmness, soon wrung from 
Spain ample apology and full sei.aration. Political 
troubles were still rife in certain states of the south. 
In March, 1871, the disorders in the soiUhern states, 
growing out of the conflicts between the whites and 
the ni-i:roes, had assumed such proportions that the 
president sent a i-pecial message to Congress requesting 
"such leaislalion as shall effectually secure life, liberty 
and properly, and the enforcement of law in all parts 
of the United Slates." On April 20 Congress passed 
an aci which authorized the president to suspend, under 
di fined circumstances, the writ of habeas corpus in any 
district, and to use the army and navy in stippressing 
insurrections. He issued a proclamation (May 4). order- 
ing all unlawful armed bauds to disperse, and after 
expressing his reluctance to use theextraordinary power 
conferred upon him, said he would "not hesitate to use 
that power to its full extent, whenever and wherever it 
should be necessary to do so for the purpose of securing 
to all citizens the peaceful enjoyment of the rights 
guaranteed to them by the constitution and the laws of 
the United States." As tliis did not produce the desired 
effect, he issued a pmrlaniaiion of warning (October 
12), and on October 17 suspended the writ of habeas 
corpus in parts of North and South Carolina. He 
followed this by vigorous prosecutions, which resulted 
ill sending a number of prominent offenders to prison, 
and the outrages soon ceased. 

312. Soon after President Grant entered upon his 
second terra of office, the disputes in Louisiana con- 
ceridng the ri'suit of the election in 1.S72 became more 
bitter, and armeti violence was threatened in that stale. 
Early in 1873 the president calk-d the attention of Con- 
gress to the inadequacy of the laws applying to Mich 
cases, saying that he had recognized the officers installed 
by the deci>ion of the returning-hoard as representing 
the de facto t;overninent, and if he had exercised undue 
interference liy such a course he urged Congress to an 
immediate decision in regard lo the matter. Congress, 
however, took no action, and left with the president 
the sole responsibility of dealing with this delicate 
question. The next year the ditficully w-is renewed 
and a fierce contest aro<e between the Pieimblicans 
under Kellogg, and the Democrats under Mi-Enery, 
the respective candidates I'f the two panics for the 
governorship, which resulted in aimetl hostilities. Kel- 
logg, the de fiirtii governor, called upon the federal 
government for protection, which it immediately 
granted by sending troops thither, and the outbreak 



was for a time suppressed. But tioubles again arose, 
and General Sheridan was sent to report upon the situa- 
tion of affairs, and if necessary, to take command of 
the troops and adopt vigorous measures to preserve the 
peace. Sheridan became convinced that liis duty was 
to sustain the government of Kellogg, and on the de- 
mand of the governor he ejected some of McEnery's 
adherents from the state capitol. As Congress still 
omitted to take any action in the case, the president 
continued his recognition of the government, of which 
Kellogg was the head, until the election of a new gov- 
ernor. After this there was no serious trouble. Dif- 
ficulties of the same nature arose in Arkansas and 
Texas, which were almost as perplexing to the execu- 
tive as those in Louisiana; but these attracted less at- 
tention from the people. 

313. In April, 1874, Congress passed a hill known as 
the "InUation bill," which increased the paper cur- 
rency of the country, aud was contrary to the financial 
policy which the president had maintained and ad- 
vocated in his state papers. Strenuous efforts were 
made by his warmest political supporters to convince 
him that the measure was financially wise and poli- 
tically expedient. President Grant gave much thought 
and study to the question, and at length fully deciiled 
that the measure would in the end prove injurious to 
the true business interests of tin; country, and delay 
the resumption of specie payment. He. therefore, re- 
turned the bill toConttress with his veto (Apiil 22). 
The arguments contained in his mes-^a^e were unan- 
swerable, the bill was not parsed over his veto, and his 
course was sustained by the whole country. The jnesi- 
dent now earnestly advocated the resumption of specie 
payment. In a letter addressed to Senator Jones, of 
Nevada, he gave a full statement of his views on the 
question. This letter w'as made puSlic, and attracted 
much attention; and in January, 187.5, the restira] tion 
act was passed, which to a large extent embodied the 
views that had been suggested by the president. There 
were doubts in the minds of many as to the ability of 
the government to carry it into effect; but it proved 
entirely successful, and the country was finally relieved 
from the stigma of circulating an irredeemable paper 
currency. 

314. Great trouble was caused soon after the close of 
the war by the depredations of the Indian tribes of the 
west and southwest. The Sioux and Cheyennes having 
begun hostilities, an expedition was sen tout against them 
under the direction of General Hancock in 1867, and 
another, in 1868, beyond the Arkansas river, where 
General Custer gained an important victory. In an 
expedition against the Modocs of Oregon, in 1873, Gen- 
eral Canby was treacherously murdered during a parley 
with the Indian chiefs. The Sioux had ceded to the 
United States a large tract of country in what was then 
Dakota territory, reserving to themselves the district 
known as the Black Hills. ^ \Vh. n it was rumored that 
gold had been found on their reservntion, the whites 
began to push into this region, regardless of the rights 
of the Indians. The Sioux were a warlike tribe, and 
they retaliated by attacking the frontier seilleineiits in 
Montana and Wyoming. United States troops were 
sent out against them, but met at first with a terrible 
disaster. In June, 1876, General Custer, with about 
two hundred aud fifty soldiers, was sur|irised and the 
entire force massacred. The war lasted into the winter 
of 1877 when the Sioux, with their chiefs. Sitting Bull 
and Crazy Horse, went across the border into British 
territory. 

315. During 187.5. the president had reason to suspect 
that frauds were being practiced b\ government ofticials 
in certain states, in collecting the revenue derived from 
the u'.:iaufacture of whiskey. He at once took active 
measures for their detection, and the vigorous pursuit 
and punishinent of tlie offenders. He issued a stringent 
order for their prose. -utiun, closing with the famous 



Tlie Infla- 
tion bill. 



The 

resnmptio 

act. 



Indian 
troubles. 



Murder of 
Canby. 



Black Hill 



The Cuete 
massacre. 



Whiskey 
frande. 



UNITED STATES 



words, " Let no pui.ty niiin escape." Miiny indictiucnls 
soon followed: the ringleaders were sent to the |ieiiilen- 
tiary . and an honest collection of t he revenue was secured. 
The year for noniinaling a i)resi<lent was at hand, and 
tlie excitement ran hiijh. Friemls of the convicted, 
political enemies and rivals for succession in his own 
party, resorle<l to the most des-|H'rate means to break 
the president's power and diminish his popularity. 
The grossest misrepresentations were practiced, tir^t in 
trj'ing to bring into question the honesty of his purpose 
in the prosecution of olTenders. and afterward in 
endeavorini; to rob him of the credit of his labors, 
which had resulted in the purifyini; of the revenue 
service. But these elfi)rts signally failed. In ISTti the 
United S'lites celebrated the one hundredth anuiver- 
gary of the Declaration of Independence. There were 
great rejoicings throughout the country, and the 
various battles of the revolution, as well as the signing 
of the Declaration, were C(unmemoraled by approiiriate 
exercises. The centennial year was chosen for holding 
a great international e.\liibilion at Philadelphia, to 
which all the nations of the world were invited to con- 
tribute. It was opened in May and closed in No/einber, 
having been visited by about ten millions of people. 

lilU. The changes at the south, and the dissatisfac- 
tion of many at the north with the rule of the Repub- 
lican managers, were seen in the election of 187(i. The 
Democrats nominsted Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas 
A. Hendricks for president and viee-piesideiit. and the 
Republicans, Rutherford H. Hayes and William A. 
Wheeler. A national (Jreeidnick convention was also 
held. May 17, composed of men who desired national pa- 
per money instead, of national bank notes, and who 
opposed resumption of specie piyments. It nominated 
PeterCooper and Samuel F. Cary. The contest was very 
clo.se, and a dispute arose as to the counting of the 
votes of certain southern states, both sides claiming 
them. The controversy was finally settled by the 
appointment of an electoral commission of fifteen, 
eight of which dcci.ied in favor of Mr. Hayes. In this 
year. Colorado, the thirty-eighth state (and the last up 
to 1887) was admitted in time to take part in the 
election. 
! 317. The administration of President Hayes, although 
much attacked by the politicians of both parties, was 
on the whole, very satisfactory to the people at large. 
By withdrawing the federal troops from southern 
stale houses, and restoring to the people of those states 
practical self-government, it prepared th ' way for that 
patriotism among those lately estranged from the union, 
that fraternal feeling between the two sections of the 
countrj', and the wonderful material advancement of 
the south wl'ich we now witness. It conducted with 
wisdom and firmness the preparation for the resump- 
tion of specie payments, as well as the funding of the 
public debt at lower rates of interest, ar.d thus facil- 
itated the development of the remarkable business 
prosperity which continued to its close. While in its 
endeavors to elTect a thorough and permanent reform 
of the civil service, there were conspicuous lapses and 
inconsistencies, it accomplished important and lasting 
results. Not only without any appropriations of 
money, and without encouragement of any kind from 
Congress, but in the face of the decided hostility of a 
large majority of its members, the system of competi- 
tive examinations was employed in some of the execu- 
tive departments at Wa;.hington, and in some of the 
great government offices in New York, thus proving 
its practicability and usefulness. The removal by 
President Hayes of some of the most powerful party 
managers from their offices, avowedly on the groutid 
that the offices had been used as part of the polili(;al 
machinery, was an act of high courage, and during his 
administration there was far less meddling with party 
politics on the part of the government officials than at 
any period since Andrew Jackson's time. 



318. The financial condition of the United States had 
been steadily improving since the war. A few months 
after the Cvmclusiou of peace the public debt had 
reached its highest amount, $;3, 800, 000, 00(1, and by the 
close of President Hayes' administraliiin no less than 
one thousand million dollars of that amount had been 
paid off. The credit of the government rose, and the 
paper money, once worth only a third of its denomina- 
tion in gold, increased in value. The operation of 
refunding the debt had beni begun July 14, 1870. At 
that time Congress pass' d a.i act. authorizing the issue 
of five, four and a half, and four per cent bonds to 
take the place of those at. higher interest. $,')00.()00.()00 
were issued in five per cent bonds, $185,000,000 in four 
and one half per cent, ami $710,3ir).!l.')0 at four per 
cent, thus reducing the annual interest charge from 
$81,639,084 to $61,738,838. This first refunding opera- 
tion was completed in the year 1879, at the time when 
specie payments were resumed. In 1881 about $'.iOO,- 
000,000 of six per cent bonds fell due. Mr. Windoiu. 
secretary of the treasury, took the responsibility of 
allowing the holders of the bonds to exchange them 
for three and one half per cent bonds, rnleemalile at 
the pleasure of the government, lloldcis of other 
bonds lo the amount of $300,0110,000 also availed them- 
selves of this privilege, thus saving $10,000,000 inter- 
est. In 187.5 Congress passed a law providing that the 
paper "fractional currenc)' " used for small change 
shoidd be redeemed ai once in silver, am! that after tlie 
1st of January. 1870. the "greenbacks" should he paid 
ou demand in coin. 

319. At the elections of 1880 the Hepublican candi- 
dates were General James A. Garlield for president, 
and General Chester A. Arthur for vice-president; 
while the Democrats nominated General Wiiificld S. 
Hancock and William E. Knglish. The Ke[nil)lican 
ticket was successful, receiving the electoral voles (214 
in number) of all the northern states except California 
— which wns divided — Nevada ami New Jersey. The 
Democratic electoral vote was 15.5 including 11 from 
Georgia, which, not having been cast on the <lay 
appointed by law, were objc'cted to when the returns 
were opened. As they could not effect the result the 
cpiestion whether they should be counted or hot was 
never decided. The new administration was inaugur- 
ated March 4, 1881, and the scramble for office winch 
had marked each advent to tlie iiresidencj- since 1829, 
followed. There was bitter dissension in the party in 
New '\'ork over the distribution of ollie.es. The New 
York senators, feeling aggrieved at certain ajipoiut- 
ments in their state, resigned, an<l then made ellorls to 
be re-elected by their state legislature, in which they 
failed. In the midst of it all President Garfield was 
shot (July 3. 1881) by a crazy disappointed oHiceseeker. 
The avowed object was to promote to the presidential 
chair Vice-Pn;sident Arthur, who represented the 
Grant or "stalwart " wing of the paily. The president 
was not instantly killed. For three months he lay 
helpless, while the nation watched anxiously every 
turn in his condition. The sympathy shown by all 
parts of the country did much to draw the nation 
together and to lessen the old distrust. Garfield died 
September 19, 1881, and was succeeded by Vice-Presi- 
dent Arthur. 

320. The prominent events of President Arthur's 
administration may be here summarized. Shortly after 
his accession to the presidency he participated in the 
dedication of the monument erected at Yorktown. 'Va., 
to commemorate the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at 
that place, Oct. 19, 1781. A convention was made 
with Mexico (July 29. 1882) for re-locating the boundary 
between that country and the United States from the 
Kio driuule to the Pacific, and on the same day an 
agreement was also ellected permitting the armed forces 
of either country to cross the frontier in pursuit of hos- 
tile Indians, The death of President Garfield called 



Financial 

condition. 



R''fuinling 
tlicUcljl. 



Election 
oflSSO. 



Gartteld'e 



Arttiur's 
adiiiinis- 
tralion 



U ^^ I T E D ST A T E S 



Chinese 
iminigra- 
tiou bill. 



(^'oiivict 
law. 



Rep.'al of 
of titiiinp 

tasi-f. 



National 

b:iliks. 



Menbaiit 
niarnie bill 
anil bureab 
of ii(i\ii^a- 
tion 

M'lliirliou 

of |,-I1,T 

|io-.Iai;i.. 



Fmicb 

t^P'tliatlon 

claiins. 



EK''MinIi 
of l.iM-1. 



C'lienil atleuliiiii ij tliiit reprehensible system under 
wbicli each partj-, while iu ortiep. h-wl paid its party 
expenses bv the use of minor offices for its adherents. 
The president's iiower of appnintinent could not be 
controllcri; but the Pendleton Act (188:^) permitted the 
president to mike appointments to designated classes 
of offices on the recommendation of a board of civil 
service ctmimissioiiera. From (he British government 
a full recogniti^in of the rights and immunities of nat- 
uralized American citizens of Irish oriain was obtained, 
and all such who were under arrest in England or Ire- 
laud as suspects were liberated. A bill passed by Con- 
gress prohibiting the iminigratiou of Chinese laborers 
for a term of twenty years was vetoed (April 4. 1883), 
as being a violation of the treaty of 1880 with China, 
which permitted the limitation or suspension of immi- 
gra'ion. but forliaile its absolute prohibition. The 
veto was sustained, and a modified bill, suspending 
immigration for ten years, was passed. May C, 1883, 
which received the executive approval. A law was 
passed (August 3, 1883) for returning convicts to 
Europe, and on February 26, 1885, importation of con- 
tnu't laborers was forbidden. 

831. The suspension of the coinage of standard silver 
dollars and the redemption of the trade dollars were 
repeatedly recommended; also, the repeal of the stamp 
taxes on matches, proprietary articles, playing cards, 
bank checks, drafts, and of the Iax ou surplus bank 
capiial and deposits. These taxes were repealed by 
act of congress (March 3, 1883); and by executive order 
of June 35, 1883, the number of internal revenue col- 
lection districts was reduced from 13() to 83. The tax 
on tobacco was reduced by the same act of congress. 
On July 13. 1883, an act became law enabling the 
national banks, which were then completing their 
twenty year terms, to extend their corporate existence. 
The attention of Congress was frecjuently called to the 
decline of the American merchant marine, and legisla- 
tion was recommended for its restoration, and the con- 
struction and maintenance of ocean steamships under 
the United Stales flag. In compliance with these 
recommendations, the following laws were enacted : 
Juno 3(), 188-1, an act to remove certain burdens from 
American shipping; July 5, 1884, an act creating a 
bureau of navigation, under chtifge of acommission, in 
the treasury department; and Man h 3, 1885, an amend- 
ment to the postal appropriation Viill granting $800,000 
for contracting with American steamship lines for the 
transportation of foreign mails. 

333. The reiluction of letter postagefrora three to two 
cents was recommended, and was effected by the act of 
March 3, 1883; the unit of weight was made (March 3. 
1885) one ounce instead of a half ounce; the rate on 
transient newspapers and periodicals was reduced (June 
9, 1884,) to one cent for four ounces, and the rate ou 
siiTiilar matter, when sent by the publisher to actual 
subscribers, was reduced to one cent a pound (March 
3, 1885). The fast mail and free delivery systems were 
largely extended. Special letter deliveries were estao- 
li^hed March 3. 1885. The star service at the west was 
increased at reduced cost; the foreign mail service 
improved; and various postal conventions were 
negotiated. A law for the adjudication of the French 
spoliation claims was passed (January 20, 1885), and 
preparations made for carrying it into effect. On 
March 3. 1885, a bill was passed retiring General 
Grant with thi; rank of general of the army, and with 
full pay. 

333. In 1884 the Kepuhlicans nominated James G. 
Blaine and General John A. Logan, and the Democrats 
Cleveland and Hendricks. The greenback and anti- 
monopolist parties jiut forwanl the name of Benjamin 
F. Butler. The prohibitionists, also, hail organized 
themselves into a party, and presented as their candi- 
date Governor St. John. A small majority of the 
democratic candidates in the .slate of New York gave 



them its electoral votes, and decided the election in their 
favor. They were inaugurated March 4, 1885. The 
preMdent aiinouueed in regard to official changes that, Cluv.iand' 
with the e.xceptions of beads of departments, foreign f^gJ-J,"'"" 
ministers, at, d other oliices charged with the execution 
of the policy of the aiimiuistr tion, no removals wouhl 
take pUce except for cause. He therefore came into 
conflict with many influential members of his pnrly. 
who advocated the speedy removal of Ilepublican office- 
holders and the appointment of Democrats, in order to 
strengiheu the parly as a political organization. While 
that class of politicians objected to the slowness 
with which removals were made, and to the appoint- 
ment of independents, and in a few instances Republi- 
cans, the Kepuhlicans and some of the civil service 
reformers complained of other appointments as not 
being in accord wilh the professions of the president. 
He declared ''offensive partisanships" to be a ground "Offensive 
for removal ; and numerous Republican function- Phfn'""" 
aries were displaced under that rule, while the term '' 
itself became a by-word. On March 13. 1885, the presi- 
dent issued a proclamation announcing the intention of 
the government to remove from the Oklahoma country, oiilalioina 
in Indian territory, the white intruders who sought to'^ountn'- 
settle there, which was done shortly afterwards by a 
det ichment of soldiers. 

324. In his message at the opening of the XLIXth Con- 
gress, December 8, 1S85, President Cleveland recom- 
mended the abolition of duties on works of art, the 
reduction of the tariff on necessaries of life, the sus- 
pension of compulsoiy silver coinage, more stringent 
laws for the suppression of polygamy in Utah, an act 
to prohibit the immigration of Mor.mons. and the ex- 
tension of the civil service reform. In January, 188(i, 
Congress passed the bill regulating the presideiuial i-uc- Presideniia 
cession in the event of a vacancy. Mr. Cleveland s'lct'^ssion. 
exercised the veto power beyond all precedent. Of 987 
bills pasi-ed by both houses in the session eniliug 
Augusts, 1886, 115 were vetoed. Of these 102 were 
private pension bills, and six were bills for theereciion 
of public buildings. Of the general measures which 
failed to receive his signature, the most important was 
the Morrison resolution requiring the secretary of the 
treasury to apply to the redemption of bonds any sur 
plus to the treasury exceeding $100,000,000. The river 
and harbor bill, containing appropriaiions, deemed by 
many useless and extravagant, and the liill taxing oleo- 
margarine two cents a pound, which was considired an 
unjust discrimination against one class of producers 
for the benefit of another, were not vetoed. On signing 
the latter, the president sent a me.^sai^e to Congress, in 
which he gave as his reason that the stamps required 
by the act would mark the character of the substance 
and prevent it being fraudulently sold. 

335. The presidential campaigu of 1888 was noted Kicciion 
for the number of candidates in the field, who were as °f '***■ 
follows; Republican, Benjamin Harrison and Levi P. 
Morton; Democratic, Grover Cleveland (renominated) 
and Allen G. Thiirman; prohibition, Clinton B. Fisk 
and John A. Brooks; union labor. A. J. Streeter and 
Charles E. Cunningham; industrial reform, A.bert E. 
Red.stone and John Colvin; united labor, Robert H. 
Cowdry and W. H. T. Wakefield; woman suf- 
frafists, Belva A. Lockwood and Albert H. Love. 
The main issue between the two leading parties. Repub- 
lican and Democratic, was on the tariff question; the 
former favoring a modified protected tariff, while the 
latterdemanded a tariff chiefly for revenue. The prin- 
ciples of the other parties related to labor, national 
currency, prohibition and woman's suffrage. The Re- 
publican party was succeseful, and Harrison as presi- 
dent, with Morton as vice-president, was inaugurated 
March 4, 1889. The administration of Mr. Harrison. Harrison's 
thus far, has been characterized by the passage ofdniinis- 
the Mrlvinlry tariff bill, which both increases and "'^"°°- 
diminishes the duties on miny necessary articles 



TJ N i; T K J ) S '1^ A T !•: S 



rhe census 



(resent 
lalioD. 



Sullways. 



Pelegraph 
kitd tcle- 
jhune tines 

Atlantic 
,elci;raph. 



^'I'w states 



Vlineral 
vcaith. 



•nal. 
?ctroleani 



Mana- 
farturcs. 



and adds lo the duties <im hixniits. an 1 1 y tliu 
regulation of pension niatters. Tlie inva.id pension 
bill bus been passed, grantin-^ pensions to all disabled 
soldiers ■without reference lo the time when the disa- 
bility was contracted. On the beginnint; of June, 1890, 
the enumeration of the general census for the last 
decade was begun, under the control of ISuiierintendent 
Porter, and the returns of the census eruiuierutorsgive 
the population of the United Stales at 63.3o0,0()0, which 
is less than was anticipated. Many consider the returns 
as imperfectly made. 

oJU. In the meanwhile the prosperity of the United 
Stales has known no cessation. During the civil war 
of 1801-18(55, the emperor of France, Napoleon III., 
atlenipled to establish in Mexico a foreign government 
under Maximilian, an Austrian archduke, aided by a 
French army. The rcmonslrance of the United States 
and the resolution of the Mexicans compelled Napoleon 
to abandon the attempt. Maximilian wassiezcdby the 
Mexicans and executed (IStiT). A new invasion of Mexico 
from the U idled Stales was begun, built was the peaceful 
invasion of commerce. Railways were pushed down 
along tlur gre.il jilateau winch reaches from the Uidlcd 
States into the heart of the country, making thus a 
closer coiuiection between the two peoples. In 1869 
thelirslof the great railroads, the Central Pacific, was 
finished, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, 
and opening the country t') settlement and travel. 
Since then other railroads have stretched their iron 
bands across the continent. Of the 2110.000 miles of 
railroad in the world, there arc, probalily. about 135,- 
000 miles in the UnitcdSlates. Tliiscouiitry possesses, 
also, more than 150,000 miles of telegraph lines; and 
the American telephone lines are still longer in the 
agijregaie. In ISGli, a previous attempt in 1857 having 
failed, a telegraphic cable was laid upon the bed of the 
Atlantic between America and Europe. This cable was 
followed by others, so that now the citizen of the 
United States may know each day the principal events 
which occur in the civilized world. The stimulus given 
to new territory jiossessing the requisites for settlement 
by the iiiirodui-tion of a new railway has been wonder- 
ful l)ey':id description. Most of the western railways 
have 'lad lo build up theirown trallic. The railway has 
I.een mainly constructed under land grants from the 
government, and the sales of these lands have brought 
into existence the towns and even the states which 
support it. 

327. In the government reports of 1854 Nebraska 
was de-cribed as a desert ■country totally unsuiled for 
agriculture, and in the maps of the time it was put 
down as a part of the Great American Desert. It is 
now one of the leading agricultural ttates of the union 
with a population of over a million. Since the admis 
sion of Colorado in 1876 six other slates have been 
admitted to lh(' union, namely. North and South 
Dakota, Washington, Montana, Wyoming and Idaho. 
There are yet five territories, including Alaska, not yet 
orgainzed into slates, and the District of C.dumbia. 
The mineral wealth of the Country has become greatly 
developed. A few years after the discovery of gold in 
California the precious metal was found also at 
Pike's Peak, Colorado (1858). Since then it has been 
discovered in most of the Pacific states and territories. 
In 1858 silver was discovered in Nevada, and this metal 
has been found widely distributed in the country 
bordering on the Pacific coast. The extent of the vast 
coal fields of the country has been pretty chtarly ascer- 
tained. In 1S83 it was es'inmted at over 200.000 square 
miles. Petroleum was discovered in 1859 in north- 
western Pennsylvania, numcr: us wells were sunk and 
vast (pianlities of the oil have been taken from the 
earth, but the reservoir seems to be unfailing. Manu 
facturing establishments of every variety have rapidly 
increased in every part of Ibc coiuitry. The al'sojute 
free trade which exists belwec'i the ttates has resulted 



in ac iii.-.lanl shifting of ccnUrs of prudnclion and an 
i.cria.sing developineut. Among the nations of the 
wcild. Great Uriiain, in 1870, stood first in wealth. 
France the second and the United States the third. 
In l^-iSO the United States had left France behind in 
llie race and stood-at least second. When all the 
census returns of 1S90 shall be given Ihey will doubtless 
show that this country ranks with the first. The 
United States, whose popuhition has been develojied 
within less than three centuries. does already more than 
oiie-tlurd of the world's nuning and one-fourth of its 
manufacturing. It embraces also one-fifth of its agri- 
culture. 

328. In this wonderful progress and development the Tiic south, 
south, since the close of the war, has borne her shaie. 

Being relieved of the incid>us of slavery she has come 
up " through great tribulation " lo as-ume her rightful 
place as a most imporlMUl factor in advancing the 
prosperity of an undivi<lcd nation. Under liie stimulus 
of free labor her growth has been exiraordinary. Nrw 
railroads have been built and new territory opi lu'd up. 
Southern railways occupy a leading position in the 
railway s_vstems of the country. SoiUhcrn in.inufact- 
ures began lo clTcct northern markets. Cotton nulls 
have been successfully established, which have the 
advantage of an inimeiliate contiguity to the cotton- 
raising states. The great mineral fields, over which 
contending armies fought fierce battles during the late 
war, have been tudughl t') light and are being rapiilly 
developed. I'ennsylvanm iron-masters have a new 
rival to contend with in the iron |iroduction of the 
south. The former slave is now a free laboier, and the 
whUe man is no longer ashamed lo work. White 
labor produced t-n per cent of the cotton crop of 18()0 
and fifty-five per cent of that of 1880. Under sbivi ry, 
cotton-seeds were waste material; in 188() (illO.Oi/O i(Mis 
of them were crushed, yielding a new prxluction in 
the form of cotton-seed oil valued at $12,000,000 per 
annum. 

329. Among the political and econcmuc (jucstio! s Civil 
demanding the attention of the eovernniciit. no our ol s.-rvice 
them is more important than theque^iion of the rel'orni ''•^f""''- 
of the civil service, but it is not avowedly made a party 
question. Twenty years ago both parlies b'ughed at 

the idea of civil cervice reform, now each one makes a 
show at least of Irealing it with respect, and the con- 
trol of the ininii'diatc political future, probably lies 
with the parly which will treat it in the most serious and 
practical manner. It is a question that was not dis- 
tinctly foreseen in the days of Hamilton and .Jeffer- 
son, when the constitution was made and adopted, 
otherwise the founders of the constitution might have 
had .somelhiiig to say concerning it. The (luesliou as 
to the civil service arises from the fact that the presi- 
dent has the power of appointing a very large number 
of petty ollicials, cliieliy postmasters and otlicers con- 
cernec! with the collecUon of the government revenue. 
Such officials have properly nothing "to do with politics; 
they are simply the agents or clerks or servants of the 
national government in conduct itig its business, and if 
this business is t'j be maiiaged on the ordinary princi- 
pli-s of prud.iico which prevail in the management of 
l>rivale business, such servants ought to be peiected for 
I'erao:;;.! iiieril and retained for life or during good 
l)ehavior. In 1883 Congress p.assed the civil service The civil 
act allowing the president to select a board of examin- service oct 
ers and make appointtnents upon their recommenda- "' "**' 
tion. Candidates for otlice are subjected lo an easy 
competitive examination. The svstem has worked well 
•n oiher e(nmlries, and under Presidents Arthur and 
t'leveland it was applied successfully to a considerable 
part of the civil service. It has also been adopted in 
some of the slates and principal cities of the union. 
It is objected to liy the opponents of reform, on the objection. 
ground that Its exanunations are not always intimately 
connecteil with the work of the office; but, even if 



UNITED STATES 



this were so, it removes tbe offices from the category of 
things known as " piitronajre," and this alone endows 
the system with great merit. Then again, it relieves 
the president of much needless work and wearisome 
importunity. The executive and heads of departments 
appoint (in many cases through subordinates^ about 
115,000 officials. It is therefore impossible for the 
principals to know much about the character or com- 
petency of those appointed. It becomes necessary to 
act by advice, and the advice of an examining board is 
sure to be much better than that of political schemers 
intent upon getting a salaried office for their needy 
friends. The examination system has made a fair 
beginning and will doubtless be gradually improved 
and made more stringent. Something has been also 
done toward stopping two old abuses attendant upon 
political canvasses, namely, that of forcing government 
clerks, under penalty of losing their places, to con- 
tribute part of their salaries for election purposes, and 
that of allowing them to neglect their work in order to 
take an active part in the canvass. 
_,. _ 330. Another political reform promising excellent re- 

.Australian suits is, the adoption by m;my states of some form of 
txillot itie Australian ballot-system, for the purpose of check 
f.vstem. injr iiititnidation and bribery at elections. The ballots 
ate printed by the state, and contain the names of all 
the candidates of all the parlies. Against the name of 
each candidate the party to which he belongs is de- 
signated, and against each name there is a small vacant 
space to be filled with a cross. At the polling place 
the ballots are kept in an enclosure behind a railing and 
no ballot can be brought outside under penalty of fine 
or imprisonment. One ballot is nailed ag,«inst the wall 
outside the railing, so that it may be read at pleasure. 
The space behind the railing is divided into separate 
booths quite screened from each other, each booth is 
provided with a pencil and a convenient shelf on which 
to wiiie. The voter goes behind the railing, takes the 
ballot which is handed to him, carries it to one of the 
booths, and marks a cross against the names of the 
candiiiates for wh(mi he votes. He then puts his ballot 
into the box, and his name is checked off ou the register 
of voters of the precinct. This system is very simple; 
and it enables a vote to be given in absolute secrecy. 
It is favorable to independence in voting, and is unfavor- 
able to bribery, because, unless the briber can follow 
his man to the polls and see how he votes, he cannot 
be sure that his bribe is effective. During the past few 
years, complaints of bribery and corruption have at- 
tracted especial attention in the United States, and it is 
highly creditable to the good sense of the people that 
preventive measures have been so promptly adopted by 
many of the states. With an independent and uncor- 
rupted ballot, and the civil service taken "out of poli- 
ties," all other reforms will become far more easily ac- 
complished. 

But u very few of theworliw treating of tlie History of the United 
Statt'.i in its manifoltl pliases can tie here civen. as they are so nu- 
merous. The Ili^torks of tin f'tiitt <i stutcti, by George Bancroft, 
David Ramsay, Riehard Hildretli, liryant iIii,'L.'uison. Lossing, Li-s- 
ter. Frost. Schouler. Von Hulst. Kui[Kitli. Hamilton, Ilassard, Gray, 
Leeds ; American HUfonj. edited by Edward L. Knapp : Gilinau, 
History of the. American People ; \1. H. liancroft, History of ttte 
Fac.ific Coast; Willsoi]. Antcrican History; Hazard, Historical 
Colieetions ; Sleptien 11. Newman. .!?/(( /■;(■« ,* Oilman, Histonj of 
th<i American People; Winsor. Xarnttice and Critical, History; 
Graliam, History of the Uintcd Slates; Parliraan's ^yorks ; 
Ludlow, War of American hid, p, inhnce ; Gordon, History of 
Ike Independence if the l'i,ii,d s/,d,s; Edward D. Neill, .!/«<■- 
Allistcr. College Contributi"/is /,, American History; Gordon, 
History of tlie American Kerotation, licaister of Hrljutts i,/ ('on- 
</ress. Congressional (4lobe, Annals of Congress; ('nies, History 
of the Ordinance of 1787; Adams, New England F'du-alism. 
IXOO-lf); Greene. Historical View of the American Jtcrolutton : 
Tlie American Commonwealtli Series : Lodge, English Colonics 
in America ; Carringt<in, Battles of the Amerirah liecolulion : 
Neill, English Colonization of America; Duyrkinrk, National 
Portrait flallrry ; Htdmes. Annals of America ; JIarstiall. History 
of the Colonies'; PiMrcy. f/islory of New England ; Slory, Com- 
vuntaries; Story, On the Cmisliliilion : Frotliinghiim, Rise OJ tlie 
Jicpahtic; Harpers' Cyclo/ifUlia of American History; Apple- 
ton' i^ Cyeloricedia of Arnerir an li'iogrnphy: John Roliert Ireland, 
The Jlejmblic ; Scott, Constitniionid Liberty in tlie Colonifs ; Hen- 
ton, Thirty Years in the Senate ; Irving, Life of Wnshingliin ; 
Kent, Comimntarie'S on American Lam; .Johnston, History of 
American Politics; Johnston, History of the United States; 
V'lake. American Political Ideas ; Fislic, Civil Government in the 



United States, Johns Hopl-in's University, studies in History and 
Politics; Howard. Local ('onstitntionoK History of the Trailed 
States; A. O. VVriLilit. Con stiliilion of the United States ; Brown- 
H^in, American lu inihlic ; l,ainiiliere. j-l»;( /■/'■«/; Coeennnent ; Wil- 
son. Coiinressioniil fr'orernme fit ; Manstield. The Political Manual; 
Curtis, tlisleiryoflhe t'loislitntion ; A. D. Whilliey. United .•itates; 
Trihinie Almanac. MrlMlersou, Political Manuals; Spoiford, 
Ant' rican Almanac ; Fallows, The American Manual ; Congress- 
ional Records ; Reports of the Otiicers of the Various States ; His- 
tories of the Various States : Compendium of tlie Census from 
l.s.=iO-1890 ; Cooper, Naval History ; Preble, tlistorij of the Navy ; 
Porter, Constitutional History; McKnii,dit. FAectoral System; 
McCrary, Election Laws; Cooley, Constitutional Limitations. 
Taxeifion and f'onstifulional Law; Alden, Science of Coeerument; 
Aii<iiTi. Constil nt'ioiiid llepublicanism : ijradford, Histori/ of the 
Ee.leral Ciii'eniini nt.. 17S',l-|s;5;) ; Coles, History of the Ordi'na'nceof 
17.S7 ; Dui^ht, History of tlie Hartford Conrenlion ; Draper, tjieil 
Policy of .\m-rica ; lYxudWu, American Politics; Sneider. The 
Aih' rican state: Spaulding, Administrations of the United states; 
Sumner, }yorfs; Ttiompson, Church and Statein the 17. S.; Tliomp- 
Bou, Revolution Acjainst Free Government; Townsend. -4/irt^y«i> 
of Civil Government ; Elliot's Debates : Constitutional Conven- 
tion ; Young, American Statesmen ; Bancroft, Formation of the 
Constitution of the U. S. ; Blaine, 7'iven.ty Years in Congress : 
Porter, Con.itiitilional History of the Unite'd States; Preble. //!> 
toryofthi'Flag of the United States; Sumner, Prophetic Voices 
Concerning America ; Wilson. Rise anel Fall of the slave Power ; 
Woolsey and others. First Century of the Repulilic ; l^ussell. His- 
tory of the War of \»\'i ; Ingersoll, History of the line 0/ 1S12 ; 
Abbott's History of the Civil War; Coinpte De Paris, History of the 
Civil War in America ; Borclce, Memoirs of the Confederate iVar; 
Brownlow, Rise and Progres.^ of Secession ; Campaigns of the 
Civil War : Drew, John Brown's Invasion; Greviey, American 
Conflict ; Harpers' History of the Rebellion; Pollard, Lost 
Cause; Pollard, Lost Cause Regained ; Memoirs of (Jrant and 
Sherman— Life of Sheridan ; Poilard, c.mral L, c and /lis Lieu- 
tenants ; PoUtiTd. Military Life of Jtjf, r^"n Diieis : Stephens, 
Constitutional Vienr of Late' War. irifh Sujg>f nu nf ; lilodgett. 
Commercial streue/ili of the United States ; Bollea. Einanrial His- 
tory of the United, states ,' Suniner, History of American Cur- 
rency ; Taylor, American. Currency; Knox, 'Fifth Report of 
American ' liaufer.'i' Association; Law. National Circulating 
.Medium in Uiilt'd .States; Phillips, History of American Paper 
Cunency and Continental Money; Wells. Robinson Crusoe's 
Mone-y ;' ^\Kin\i\w:^. One Hundred Years of Bunking ; 'E\y, Labor 
Movement in America ; Gibbons. Public If' ht oftheUnite'dStates; 
Mason. The Tarif : Young. Tariff L"iislation of the Ignited 
states; Hudson, Railwai/s^und the R> public : \h\d\ey, Railroad 
Transpovtation ; Poor, Manual of F. .s'. Railroads ; Poreher, Re- 
sources of the .South ; Dresser, United Stales Tariff: Oflicial Sta- 
tistics of the United Stales, and the Several States. 

PRESIDENTS AND YICEPRESIDENTSOPTHE UNITED STATES 



Terjis. 


PnESIDENTS. 


Vice-Presidests. 


nso-M 


1. 


George Washington, Va. 


1. 


John Adams, Mass. 


17(i:3-fl7 




George Washington. 




John Adams. 


17ii7-tsoi 


o 


John Adams, Mass. 


2 


Thomas Jefferson, Va. 


isoi-iirj 


~i. 


Thomas Jefferson, Va. 


a 


Aaron Burr, N. X. 


lSO.i-0!l 




Thomas Jeilerson. 


4. 


George Clinton, N, T. 


1.S09-13 


4. 


James Madison, Va. 




George Clinton (d. 

1812). 
Elbridge Gerry, Mass, 


1813-17 




James Madison. 


5. 










(<^. 1814). 


1817-21 


5. 


James Monroe, Va. 


6. 


Daniel D. Tompkins, 

N, Y. 
Daniel D. Tompkins. 


I 831-85 




James Monroe. 




1835-29 


6. 


John Quiucy Adams, Mass. 


7. 


Johu Caldwell Cal- 
houn, S. C. 


lS29-a3 


7. 


Andrew Jackson, Tenn. 




Jolin-C. Calhoun (res. 

is;!2. 
Martin Van Buren, 

N. Y. 
Richard Mentor John- 


1833-37 




Andrew Jackson. 


8. 


1837-41 


8. 


Martin Van Bnren, N. T. 


9. 










son. Ky. 


1811-4.5 


9. 
10. 


William Henry Harrison, 0. 

[d. 1K411. 
John Tyler. 


to. 


John Tyler, Va. 


1845^9 


U. 


James Knox Polk, Tenn. 


It. 


(Jeorge MilHin Dallas, 

Pa," 
Millard Fillmore.N.Y. 


1849-53 


12. 


Zachary Taylor, La. {d. 


13. 






18.50. 








13. 


Millard Fillmore. 






1853-57 


14. 


Franklin Pierce, N. H. 


1.3. 


William Rufus King, 
Ala. {d. 18,531. 


1857-61 


1.5. 


James Buchanan, Pa. 


14. 


John Cabell Breckin- 
ridge, Ky. 


18(51-65 


16. 


Abraham Lincoln, 111. 


15. 


Hannibal Ilamlin, Me. 


1865-69 




Abraham Lincoln (d. 1865). 


16. Andrew Johnson, Tenn 




17. 


Andrew Johnson. 






1S69-73 


18. 


Ulysses Simpson Grant, 111. 


17. 


Schuyler Colfax. Ind. 


1873-7? 




Ulysses S. Grant. 


18. 


Henry Wilson, Mass. 
{d. 1875). 


1S77-S1 


19. 


Rutherford Bircliard Hayes, 
0. 


19. 


Wm. Almon Wheeler, 
N. Y. 


188M5 


30. 
21. 


James Abram Garfield, 0. 

(d. 1881 1. 
Chester Allan Arthur. 


•20. 


Chester Allan Arthur, 
N. Y'. 


1885-89 


22. 


Grover Cleveland, N. Y'. 


21. 


Thomas AndrewsIIen- 
dricks. Ind. <(/. 1SS5.) 


1889- 


23. 


Benjamin Harrison, Ind. 


22. 


Levi Parsons Morton, 
N. Y. 



S. F. 



PHYSICAL lE.VTLllES.] 



U N 1 1 E D STATES 



PART H.-riTYSTfAL OEOGRAPITY AND STATISTICS. 



Races and 

lauguatfo. 



Bi>un>lnrics 
iiid area. 



oitl posi- 
iuu. 



PHYSICAL OROGRAPHY ASl> STAT^TICS. 

North America is very uiifqiitiUy divid'-tl between rnees sneak- 
inK Kui^li-'liand those whotie litlieiiil IiiUKUUKe l- Spnni>h. rrom 
tnu imnillel of 3u° snutli the eommoiit imrrows very ntpidly, and 
nearly all the country to thi.- north of this itarullcl is under the 
control of Eniilish-Sfteakiuk' people. U is true that many onii- 
BranLs from various p.'rtions ot Eurui.e, and unme from Asia, 
a;" wt'Il ti» the descendants uf Africans, arc mingled with the de- 
8Cinilant-s of the Kn^H.-h; but this doet: not injiterially affeet the 
truth ot the statement, that north of :^)° the EiiKli;^h laiiKUaKO 1^ 
not niily dotiiinaut. but iilnmst universal, This vast region, enilmie- 
iiiK an urea of more than seven millions nf sijujiro mih-s. is pr-tty 
einiiilly divided, .-o tar lu-i area is coueernrd. betwcn eolunial 
pns-^essions of lireat Britain antl a eouiitry of «hieh the nneleus 
wjis onee colonial and KnKlish. but whicli for a little more than a 
hin<ln*d years has been independent of the mitther country, and 
which iias greatly increased in area since that chantre took place. 
by the absorption, as I'xpbiined elsewhere, of land foriiierl.\ to a 
certain extent controlh-'l liy. or in imniinal possession (if. pco|>le 
speak inu' French and Spanish. 'I'ho Spani.^h-speakinK inhabi- 
tants of North America are known as Mexicans and Central 
Americans, the colonial Knjiclish as CanaJian^; and owinK to the 
dillieulty of makin;: a convenient and euphonious adjective- 
api'cllativ.- out of the name United .States, the citizens of **lho 
States" arc beiujr more and more Kcnerally designated by the 
term "Americans." 

The British possessions in North America, althoufth about 
t (|iial m area to the United Slates, are much less densely popu- 
lated than this country, and will in all pnibability ever remain so. 
since in rcKard to cliiiuiie. soil, and mineral ^)roduetii»ns, the 
northrrn oortion of the continent stands in a position greatly in- 
ferior to that of the more southern rcKion. To the United States 
b.Ionps fh.it portion of North America which by its position in 
latitude is. in lart'c part, capiiblo of suiiportinj? n dense popular 
tiun. and where the elimatio conditions are highly favorable to 
intellectual and physical development. 

The area embraced under the desicnation of "the United 
States" (of North America) extends from the Atlantic to the 
Paoilic Ocean. Its brmndarics. other than these oceans, are in 
part natural and in part artitieinl. The (Julf of Mexico forms the 
southern boundary of the United Stales between the meridians of 
8;^*^ and 97"*. Between Mexico and the United States, the bound 
ary is in part natupil iind in par: arbitrary. The most essential 
feature ot rhis boundary is the Hio (irando. from the mouth of 
which the division line between Mexico and the United States 
follows this river to the point where the parallel of 31° 47' inter- 
sects it. 

The bouuiiary line between the United Stnt'-s and Canada fol- 
low-* ttie middle of the St. Lawrence Uivcr and the Great Lakes, 
from the point where the 4.5th parallel cuts that river to a point 
on Lake Superior where the Uainy Lake River enters that lake, 
thence up thjit river to a point on the west side of the Lake of 
the Woods, and thence niong lhe49th psiriillel to Pupot Sound. 

The tri!int:ular area between Lakes Onfiirio and Erie on one 
side atid Luke Huron on the (tther extends fur to the south of the 
remiiininc portion of Cana'la. and rhis southerly area constitutes 
the most valuable and thickly inhabited portion of the Dominion. 
The United States, as thus limited, jeavinp out of consideration 
the remote territory of Alaska, comprises an area of 3.0i5.(i0ll 
square miles. This includes 5.5,tiOO s(!uare miles of water surface, 
embracing the following items :— 

Const waters, bays, gulfs, sounds, etc 17.200 

Rivers and smaller streams \i,hU() 

Lakes and ponds 2.3.0(10 

Leavins the total land surface 2,0"n.(:(H) 

Total 3.025.ti00 

Under the heatl of *'lakes and ponds." as given above, no portion 
of the Crreat Ljikes is included The area of Alaska is given iii 
the Census Report of 18^'> ns being .S31.4n9 square miles, which 
fisniics. however, can be only a roui^h approximation, and which 
differ greatly from th'ise L'iven in the Report of the Commissioner 
of the (ieneral Land i)i\i('0 for the year ending June 30. lH8(i. 
The total of the posse-sions of th" United States is therefore. 
apjiroximately. S.-'vJT.iXI** square miles. The area of the Ilriti.^h 
PAssossions in North America, inchniinp Newfoundland, but not 
the Arctic Archipelago, is given by Bohm and Wngner at 3.24'<,077. 
and by Mr. Selwyn, <iovernnient Geologistof Cunada. at 3..'S.30,tl3O 
square miles.— the latter estimate itj<duding Xcwf-mndland. and 
als(. [ho islands in the Are(ir> Ueean and Hudson's Bay. The area 
of .Mexico is given by Behtn and Wagner as 751,177 .«qu!ire miles, 
and that of Central America 2n.3:i(» square miles. The total 
areaof North America, including the Arctic Archipolntroand (Cen- 
tral Anieriea. may therefore be approximately stated as follows t— 

British Possessions 3..Vi0.fi30 

Unitecl States 3.5-S7.H9 

jMoxico 7.">1.IT" 

Central America 211,320 

Total 8,050.1.W 

The area of the United States lies between the 67th and 125th 
degrees of longitude, and the 25th and 47th degrees of latitude. 



The form and character of the coast lines of the United States Coast. 
may properly fiist claim our attention in a lopo^jrapliic sketch of 
the area under consideriition. Th<- facilitic> for K>">d harbors are 
lacking on both coasts. The Ueliiicncy in this rci^pect on the 
Paei^e side is striking, there being only one important bay on this 
coast between San Oiegii and Pug. f Sound; namely, that of San 
Fmnoisco. This, as compared with iho mass of the land, is of insig- 
nificant size, but as furnishing a largr. safe, and easily accessible 
harbor, is of the greatest importance The indentation at San 
Uiogo is much small. 'r thiin that of San l-'ninei.-eo. but that also 
tarnishes a connuodious hiirbor. With tht sc exceptions there are 
within tin- limits of the United States no .-atisfactory harbors on 
the raciticcoasi except tliosc of I'uget Sound and Columbia River 
in the extieme north. 

The oiistern coast of the United Sttttes is provided with several Ports and 
gooil harbors and some large bays. On the Maim- const there is the harbors, 
harbor t)f Portland, which may be taken as a type of a number 
of safcund cornnlodiou^ ports alongtho coast. In Massachusetts. 
Ciipe C<)d incloses n large and .•■afc bay, at the lower end of which 
is situated the h trbor ot Boston. In New York, the situation of 
the city by the same name makes that port the most important 
center of commerce in the United States. 

The superiority and commodi..usncss of the harbor of New York 
depends in pa't on the breadth of the Hudson near its month— 
this river being iti fact almost an arm of the sea— and also on the 
position <d Long Ishind. the western end of which is so placed 
with reterenco to the coast of New Jersey and a closely con- 
tiguous small ishind (Staten Island) as to inclose a laige land- 
locked area called the Upper Bay. 

Long Island, off the e.iast of Connecticut, has a length of 120 
miles, It is the only island of any importance on the Atlantic 
coa,>*t. Tlicre are a riumber of smaller ones, such as Block Island, 
Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard. 

South of New Y'ork are the Chcsapeiiko and Delawiire Bays. Bays. 
The latter receives the water of the Delaware River, and the 
Chesapeake that of the Potomnc and tiie Susquehanna. The 
largest indentation on the coast of the United States is the Gulf of 
Mexi<-<i. 

It is into this great reservoir that the superfluous waters of the 
larger portion of the United SttUes are carried, chiefly by the 
Mississippi and Missouri, but also by direct drainage into the 
Gulf from the adjacent States. The peninsula of Florida, project- 
ing from and extending five degrees south of the mainland, and 
forming the eastern boundary of the(inlf. is of more importance 
in its relations to the currents entering into the Gulf than it is as 
an addition to the inhabitable territory of the country. 

A large portion of the northern boundary of the United Sttttes 
is of !i peculiar kind. It is neither land, river, nor ocean, but 
fresh water: it being a line drawn through the central portion of 
four of the so called "(Jreat Lakes"— Ontario, Erie. Huron and 
Superior. Luke Michigan, on the other hstnd, is wholly within 
the limits of the United States. 

The Great Lakes, which are five in number, constitute n mostTheOreat 
important feature in the topography of the country. Thev are Lakes 
remarkable for their si/e. and for the near approach to equality of 
alritude above the sea-level of the surfiice of the four largest ones. 
Navitration is entirely uninterrupted between Erie. Iluron and 
Michit:!in. and these have the following elevations: Erie 573 feet; 
Huron.. ^s2: iMichifran, .i82. Lake Superior is twenty feet higher 
thiinL!ike Michignn. but this obstruction hns been overcome by the 
building of a canal around the Fulls of St. Mary (San t Ste. Marie), 
with a single lock of suflicient dimensiuns to accommodate ve-isels 
and steamers of the largest size. Lake Ontario is .320 feet lower 
thjin Kric.aiKl these two lakes are connected bv a canal on the 
Canada side; while Erie is also thus connected, on the American 
side, with the Hudson River, and through this with the Atlantic. 

As before remarked, the ciiief driiinnge of the United States is to 
the Gulf of Mexico, through the system of the Mississippi-Mi^souri 
nnd their tributiirios. as will be seen by the following table, show- 
ing the extent of the various important divisions of the drainage 
area of the country, as given by the U. S. Census of 1880:— 

Atlantic and Gulf 2.17*^.210 

Great Basin 2vs!l50 

Pacific Slope ^119/240 

The dminage area of th? Missi^sippi-^^Hssouri River^is esti- 
mated at 1.240,0.39 square mile«. or somewhiit over one-third of the Drainage 
entire areaof the ctmntry. The drainage into the Atlantic and area:-. 
Gulf, as stated above at 2,178.210 square miles, is divided as 
follows: — 

Now England coast 61,S30 

Middle Atlantic coast 83^020 

South Atlantic coast 132".o'lO 

Gre;tt Lakes 17.^,340 

Gulf of Mexico , 1.725,980 

Total 2.178,210 

Thedrainnpc into the Gulf of Mexico is thus divided :— 

Into the Gulf direct 485,941 

Through the Mississippi River I,24o!o3o 

1,725.980 



UNITED STATES 



[GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY. 



This indication of the overAvhi-'liniiig preponderance of ihe 
drainage of the territ!»ry of the United ritaius iuto the Gulf of 
Mi.xico naturally open:^ lh<j «ay to a recognition of the moat im- 
P Ttant fact in the topogniphy of the country — namely, the 
exHlence of such an orographic structure as compels the waters 
lu concentrate themselves into one sreat system of tributaries 
coming in from the east and the west, and uniting in a miiiu 
iiorth-and-south chnnnel. The cjiu.-^e of this state of things be- 
come-; evident when we notice the general relief of the country, 
a:id the positions of the various water-sheds. To acquire the best 
goneral ideauf the relit-f of tlie surfiiceof the United States, we may 
bejiin by supposing the land to be depressed, or the level of the 
ocean raised, to an amount equiil to one thousand feet. By doing 
this we should flood a great strip of country ncros!* the continent. 
Mexico would remain on the wi_'St a great mass of land, while to 
the north of the United States the land would rapidly diminish as 
higher latitudes were reached. 

GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY. 

In describing the physical features of a country, it is necessary 
to consider its general jdan, tlie skeleton or framework of minin- 
taius, to which its plains, valleys, and river systems are subordi- 
nate, and on the direction and elevation of whose parts its climate 
is. in a very largo do;;ree, dependent. 

The skeleton of the United St;ites is represented by two great 
system i of mountain ranges, or combinatioos of ranges, one 
forming the eastern, the nther the western side of the framework 
by whieh the central portion of our continent is embraced. These 
two systems are the Appalachian ranges and the Cordilleras of 
North America. These systems are of very different magnitude 
and extent, [between them stretches a great interior valley, occu- 
pied by the Mississippi and the greatjakes. 
IMotMitain The central portion of the United States is nearly a level area, 
n gioas. embracing a tract of country about 1250 miles east and west, and 
about r2U(,' miles north and south. It .--liipes gt-ntly downward to 
the center from the east and west, and towards the Gulf of Mex- 
ico, from it.s northern limits. The mountain legions, both on the 
east and west coasts, are not embraced under one continuous 
range, but are complicated in their orographic structure. 

The eastern and western elevated regions being made up of a 
^'reat numbi-r of topographieally more or less detached portions. 
It was not until a conirii.-itively recent period that these regions 
received sucli general di-tiuetive appellation- us would evidently 
b* required in any liiseussion or description of the country as a 
whole. At the present time, by gen<Tal consent nf geographers 
and geologi.'^ts, the ejistern ele\ ated side of the continent is called 
tiie Api'alachi.vn Region; the western the Curdilleran. while 
tae (•uin[»nrati\ ely level country between these ranges is known 
us the Ml-SlSSIPPI Vaixky- 

The Great Basin of the Mississippi is bisected through its cen- 
ter by a suprenie artery, whieh. above St. Lnui.s has received the 
name of the Missouri, and below the Mississippi Kiver. 

This is 5.UUU miles in h-ngth. and its surface is a continuous in- 
clined plane, descending seven inches in the mile. Into this cen- 
tral artery, as into a cemnnon trough descend innumerable rivers 
coming from the great mountain chains of the continent. 

AH of the iinmense'area thus drained forms a single basin, of 
which the circumferent mountains form the rim. It may be also 
called an fu»7>/)///it(f?')v. embracing 1.5(10,000 square miles of surface. 
This has bein, durinu' the anteililuvian ages, the bed of a great 
ocean, such as is now the iJulf of .Mexico, or the Mediterranean, 
above the ,-urface of whieh the mountains jirotruded themselves 
as islands, Gradually tilled up by the filtration of the waters 
during countless ages, it has reached its presentaliitude above the 
other basins, over which the oceans now still roll, and into which 
the watpr-i have retired. .... 
?I;ssissippi The fiaaiii of the Mississippi is, then, a pavement of calcareous 
btisiu. rock, many thousand feet, in depth, formed by the sediment of 

the superincumbent water, deposited stratum upon stratum, com- 
pressed by its weight and crystallized into rock by i',s chemical 
fermentation and pressure. It is in exact imitation of this sub- 
lime process of the natural worldthat every hnusewife com- 
presses the milk of her dairy into solid cheese and butter. It is, 
thcrefme, a homogt-neous, undulating plain of the secondary or 
sedimentary formation, surmounted by a covering of soil from 
which springs the vegrtitliiin. as hair from the externa! skin of 
iin animal. Through this coating of soil, and iuto tiie soft surface 
strata of rock, the deseeniUng fresh waters burrow their channels, 
converjiing everywhere, from the circumferent rim to the lowest 
level, and I'ass out to the sea. 

The most noticeable facts in regard to thi.s vast area are its 
Blight elevation above sea-level and the general plain-like char- 
acter of its surface. These conditions are well illustrated by the 
statement that at Cairo, the junction of the Ohio and the Missis- 
sippi, we are 1,100 miles from the Gulf, and yet only about 300 
feet above the sea-level. At Pittsburgh, the head of the Ohio 
river proper, we have attained an elevation of only 699 feet. 
Going in the opposite direction, or following up the tributaries of 
the Mississippi and of the Missouri, which come in fn)m the west, 
we have a similar condition of things. One may travel up the 
Platte or the Kansas for hundreds of miles, rising so gradually 
and so imperceptibly tliat the countrj' seems all the time a level 
plain. From Council Bluffs to the source of Lodge Pole creek, 
along the line of the Union Pacific railroad, the ascent averages 
only 5 feet to the mile. From St. Paul, which is only 700 feet 
al)Ove the sea. we travel for 670 miles westerly before the month 
of the Yellowstone is reached, and here we Iiave attained an alti- 
tude of only 2,U10 feet, with an average rise of only 2 feet to the 
mile. 
.Ai<a of The great lakes, those vast expansions of the upper waters of 

G:eat the St. Lawrence, are among the grandest of the geographical 

ijttkes. features of the North American continent. They are remarkable 



for their immense area, and for their uniformity of elevation 
above seadevel, and the consequent facilities which they "nurd 
for cummercial intercourse. 

Their combined area is a little more than 90,0i;0 square miles. 
Lake Superior having over 30,000, and Lakes Michigim and Huron 
each over 2M,nOO sfiuare miles of surlace. Erie. Huron, and 
Michigan are nearly on the same k-vei, the extreme difference be- 
tween the first find the last-named being only about lb feet, while 
Suficrior is ouly 20 feet higher than Michigan, or 36 above Erie. 
The divide between the un-at lakes and the waters flowing into 
the Mississippi and its tributaries is also everywhce low, and at 
the lower end of Lake Michigan it is so trifling that oulv a: mall 
amount of excavation has been required to cause waters which 
formerly flowed into that lake to run toward the t^ulf of Mex- 
ico. Lake Ontario is, indeed, 323 feet lower than Lake Lrie, 
about half the descent from one to the other being made in one 
single plunge of the vast body of water, forming a cataract which 
has, in all I'lrububility, no rival in the world. 

The level and fertile region of the Mississippi valley is pro- 
longed toward the far southwest, aronnil the Gulf of Mexico and 
far iuto the interior of Texas, where it finally passes into the " I - 
vated, barren plateau of the Llano Estacado. 

All that portion of the Mississippi basin lying between Hie Timber. 
Mississippi River and the Atlantic, is densely timbered, excepimi,' 
only a portion of Indiana. Illinois, and Wisconsin : so also an' tlio 
States of Louisiana, Arkansas, and South Missouri An irregular 
line from the head of Lake Erie, running toward the south and 
west into Tex:is. defines the cessation of the timber. Between 
this line and the sea exists a continuous forest region, perpetually 
moistened by showers from the ocean. Beyond this line, and 
deeperinto the continent, the upland ceases to nourish timoer, 
which is replaced by luxuriant annual grasses, though nanow 
lines of forest continue upon the saturated bottoms of the rivers 
and in the islands. This is the Prairie region of luxuriant annual 
grasses and soft arable soil, over which the fires annually sweep 
after the decay of vegetation. 

Th'^- termination of this belt is marked by an irregular line par- 
allel to the first, where the rain ceases, and the timber entirely 
di>;ip|iears. It is about 4.'>0 miles in width, and within it arti- 
ficial iirigation is not practiced nor necessary, it being t.very- 
where soft, arable and fertile. 

To this succeeds the immense rainless region onward to the 
mountains, exclusively pastoral, of a compact soil, coated with 
the dwarf buffalo grass, without trees, and the abode of the ab- 
original cattle. That no desert does or can exist within Ibis 
basin, is manifest from the abundance and magnitude of the 
rivers; the uniform ealciiprjns formation; the absence of a tropi- 
cal sun; its longitudinal position across the teniperate zone; and 
the' greatness and altitude of the mountains on its western rim. 
The river system of the Mississippi Basin resembles a fan i f River 
palm-leaf. The stem in the State of Louisiana rests in the (lulf ; gysienu 
above, the affluent rivers converge to it frum all parts of the 
cnnipass. From the east come in the Homoehitto, the Yazoo, the 
Ohio, the Illinois, and the Upper Mississippi. From the rcest^ 
the Red River, the Washita, the Arkansas, the White. St. Francis 
and Osage Rivers, the Kansas, the Triple Platte, the L'Eau qui 
Coiirs, and the Yellowstone, all naviga le rivers of great length 
and importance. These rivers present a continuous navigable 
channel of 22.500 miles, having 45.01)0 miles of shore— an amount 
of navigation and coast equal to the Atlantic Ocean. The areaof 
the Mississippi Basin classifies itself into one-and-a-half-fifths uf 
the compactly growing forest, the same of prairie, and two-fifths 
of great plains. Through all of these the river system is ramified 
a? minutely complex as are the veins and arteries of the human 
system. 

Beyond this great main river stretch out the vast prairies of the Plains, 
west. These plains are not deserts: they are calcareous, and foim 
the Pastoral Garden of the world. Their position and area may 
he easily understood. The meridian line which terminates the 
States of Louisiana. Arkansas. Missouri and Iowa on the west, 
forms their eastern limit, and the Rocky Mountain crest their 
western limit. Between these two limits they occupy a longitudi- 
nal parallelogram of less than 1.000 miles in width, exteniling 
from the Texan to the Arctic coasts. There is no timber upon 
them, and single trees are scarce. They have a gentle slope from 
tiie west to the eost, and abound in rivers. They are clad thick 
with nutritious grasses, and swarm with animal life. The soil is 
not silicious or sandy, but is a fine calcareous mould. They run 
smoothly out to the nnvigiible rivers, the Missouri. Mississippi, 
and St. Lawrence, and to the Te.xan coast. The mountain masses 
toward the Pacific form no serious barrier between them and that 
ocean. No portion of their whole sweep of surface is more than 
l.OiiO miles from the most facile navigation. The prospect is 
evervwhere gently undulating and graceful, being bounded, as 
on the ocean, by the horizon. Storms are rare, except during the 
melting of the snows upon the crest of the Rocky Mountains. 

The climate i-i comparatively raj'a^i'**.- the rivers serve, like the Climate. 
Nile, to irrigate rather than drain th" neighboring surface, (tnd 
ha\e few affluents. They all run from west to east, having beds shal- 
low and luTiad. and the basins thrnush w tiich they flow are flat, long 
and narrow. The area of the Great Plains is equivalent to the 
surface of the twenty-four States bctwe- n the Mississippi and the 
Atlantic Sea. They are one homogenei.us formation, smooth, 
uniform, and continuous, without a singleahrnpt mountain, tim- 
ber'-tl sp;ice. desert, or lake. From their ample dimensions and 
position they define themselves to be the pasture-fields of the 
w'irld. 

The Pastoral Region is longitudinal. The bulk of it is under 
the Temperate Zone, out of wnieh it runs into the Arctic Zone on 
the north, and into the Tropical Zone on the south. The parallel 
Atlantic ora5/<' and maritime region flanks it on the east; that 
of the Pacific on the west. 



r.IK lOUl.lLI.OlAN HEOIOX.] UNITED STATES 



While, Oil iho whole, so nearly a plain, this vnst area, compris- 

uin over n iiiilliuii aiul a half f>qiiiir>^' iiiilos. has con^iUeniblo 

diversity -"f surface, it beiuK nuialinKeihi-r destitute of mouutuiiis, 

801110 of wbii'h rise to a eiiusideraljh' aliituiU-. To tiescTibe. even 

with a inoderato amount of ilei:iil, the l>a.Hiii (»f the larKet^t river 

8V8tem but one in the world would nquiio many volumes. All 

that can be done is to indieute the salient teaturcs of its Keology, 

Of supi'lemeiitary to that which has been >aid in regard to tho 

Btructun,' of tho great mountain systems by which this geolugi- 

callv eompamtively undisturbed rek'ion is fninud in. 

'eniarv The Tertiary and Creta'-eous rocks, exteudink' along tho (Julf 

nd I'u-ta- and up the Mi-si.-sippi Vall'-y as far as the Ohio Kiver. underlie 

Bous HP. Ks. iiboiit one half nf Alabama and Arkansas, the entire istato of 

.Mississippi. Louisiana, parts of Tennessee. Kentueky. a small 

b'oloirieal onnr nf .Missouri, and nearly all of Te.\as. Thence this zoological 

ormstion. fnrnialioD follows the general trend of tho Uocky Mountains, on 

their ea-storn side and underlies th'^ western half of Kansas, nearly 

all of Nebraska, North and South Dakota, a portion of Iowa, and 

the western part of MtDues<>ta. 

Triassic rtK'ks stri'ieh over a large area of Texiu-i; th»-y also ex- 
tend into the Indian Territory and tho southtrn part <•£ Kmisas. 
All hut a suniU rwirtion of the Northern Central group *>( States 
and portions of (he Suuthern Centnil group of States, are of ihi^ 
Palfozoio rock f'»raiation. covered by post-Trrtiary and rec-ut 
detrital formations. In southeastern Missouri, the Axoicareais im- 
portant frcduaiiecnnomieal staudpnint. Iron ores i>f immense vuluo 
occur in Pihit Knob, Iron .Mountain and other IcK-alities. Iron is 
also found in the Azoic formations about Lake Superior, in the 
States of Wisconsin and northwestern MinnesotJi. North of this 
iron rej:ion is the copper-bearing rock of tho lower Silurian age. 
Over New York, northern i'enn>ylvania. and the country Ijorder- 
ingon tlie Great Lakes is found a large amount of "drift." How 
this so called "drift"' wa-s distributed «iv<r this area is a question 
which hivs long been a subject of discussion among geologists. liv 
far the larger number of those who have invrstigineil tho subjevt 
ascribe the origin of this coarse deiriial inaferial to gliieial 
c:nses. It is believed that at one time the northern purt of the 
continent WHS c«»vered with ice. and ihnt which wo see on the 
pr ent surface of the region that was thus covered, is the result 
of the action of these ylaeiers, or of tho tloods which were pro- 
duced when ihcy melted. 

THK COROnXERAN RKOION. '^ 

The Cordill-'ras are a part -d" the great system or chain of 
Qiountatns which borders the Pucific coast of both divisions of 
the American continent. South and North America, and forms its 
dominating,' and most imposing feature. 

Fr 'm .Mexico the system of the Cordilleras enters our territory, 
widening and gaining in complexity. Just above the southern 
border of Arizoim. along the paralhl of32'*, occurs the greatest 
depression "f tho Cordilleni.-; existing anywhere north of southern 
Mexico; and here the continent iimy be traversed without rising 
to an elevati(»n of over I.Oi'O feet 'Ihe country along this line is a 
tabl..- land, with many short and broken ranges of no great alti- 
tude built upon it. but deeply excavated by numerous eanon.s as 
the narrow valleys of the -streams in the Cordilleras are uni- 
versally called, of which the canon of theColorado may bo taken 
as the tvpe. 
Tie Cor- On this plateau, in latitude .15". is agroup of extinct volcanoes. 

illeras. simitar to the range which traverses Alexico. These grand vol- 
canic cent's. uf which San Francisco mountain is thelnftiest and tho 
best known, rise to nearly flouble tho akitu'lo of tho plateau on 
w-hich they stjind. The greatest width of tho Cordillents is along 
the line passing from the vicinity of San Francisco, by (ireat 
Salt Lake, to l?ort Laramie, or between latitudes :iH° and 42'^. 
Here the mass of mountiiius and plateaus atUins a breadth of 
fully a thousand miles; and if ih.- Black ilills, an outlier of the 
Rocky Mountains, in latitude 44*. are included— as they may 
properly bo— the total breadth of the comphxuH of ranges wifl 
be. in Its in'ixnnum. over l.liiii miles. 'Ihe \vhnIo arcaetnbraeed 
within (he mounUiinous belt which we call the Cordilleras is 
but very little, if any. short of a milli.-n of scjuare miles, or one- 
third the area of the country. Ilenco it may. with propriety, be 
caHod the greatest phvsieal feature of our territory. 

To roughly indicate the shape of the mass of tho Cordilleras we 
may consider it as having a loz'.'nge-shap.'d figure, bounded bv two 
parallel north and sonthsi les and two northwest and southeast 
Bidts. Thelengfh of each side is apr'roxinmtely r.Oi) miles. Tho 
western edge of the figure corresponds in trend to tho line of tho 
Pacific coast, tvhich, as a glance ar the tnai* will show, is north- 
west and southeast as far as Cape Mendocino, ami from there to 
Vancouver Island north and south nearlv. Tiie north and south 
trending portion of tho Pacifi.- edge of the Conlilleras is known as 
the * as cade rang.-: the m*rrhwest and sriutheiist range as tho 
Sierra Nevada. Here, bordering on the ('asciide and Sierra 
^evada mnges. but -fill nearer the ociin. are the Coii^t rantces, 
parallel with the loftier masses on th- eust.and inoM-nliiting with 
them. lit various points, in such a inaiinrr that a disrinct ^epa- ' 
ration b<--twecn coiK-t and interior riniKes S'-i-ms hardly possihlo, 
tith'T "" geo^rraphical or an geological grounds. 

The Kocky .Mountains projit-r form (he eastern rim of the Tor- 
dilleras. Ihroughout New Mexico, CoJora-lo. and southern 
Wyomingtheir face ranges north and fouth. The northern part 
of this system, lying in northern Wyoming and MorHuna. pre- 
Bents to the plains n northwest and southeast face, similar to that 
of the >ierra Nevada. 

The loz-nge shaped figure thus indicated, framed in. as it were. 
by the (.a.-'fiido range and Sierra Nevada on the west and the 
Kocky Mountains on tho east, incloses a high plateau, which. 
in^/Sii*'? "'' center east and west, has an elevation of from 4.000 to 
lU.OOO feet above sea-level, falling off toward both tho north and 
too south from its central lino. 



Lotus consider t„ in its great general features. It maj Oe 
divided into— 

1st. riiesfction of tho Kocky Mountains, 

2d. That of the plateaus, 

3d. Thai of tlie v>rt.ar Ba?iu, and 

4th. Tliiit of llie Paeilic 

The country lying east of the first section is a great plain, ex- 
tending to an und' finable eastern limit, ^shieh may beset, how- 
ever, roughly at tho liOih meridian. This plain is not strictly 
level, but umluhitiiig. like the swi It of tbehea. Mostof the stream 
valleys are shallow deprt-Ssii-ns. ai.d the divides between them 
arc but slightly marked. '1 hose plains rise sluw Iv westward, with 
an even gradient, to a height of 4,0UO to (i.l Oo feot at the eastern 
base of tho Uocky Mountains, Ijoing the highe>t in Colorado, de- 
creasing thence nortlnviird and southward. They are c<ivered with 
grasses almost throughout, and form a grazlng-grouud of almost 
incalcuhiblo cupacity. 

With theexci,-ptinnof the Missouri and the Yellowstone, none of 
the streams are of any importance to navignliiiU. and they arc^ of 
use only for irrigation. The capacity of this ngion for supporting 
life is largely depeudent upon its rainfall, whit-u will be discus>ed 
further on. 

The Kocky Mountains form tho eastern member of the C- r- RocKy 
dilleran system,— a number made up of many subordinate rant s, Mouuluins. 
each range or sub-group of ranges having a di^tiuetlv(■ name.rec' g- 
nized by those living near, while (ho n:(m»- "Kocky MounUiins" is 
in general use as tho propi.r appellation wlien a number of these 
sub groups of ranges arc intended to be includtd under one com- 
mon name. 

From tho south border of the United States to about latitude 
4.*i° their general course is nearly norih and south, and from thia 
point northward to the British line it is nearly northwest, thus 
tormiiig tlie two eastern sides of the lozenge above spoken of. 
They consist of a number of rangis. nearly nil of which trend 
pitrailel to one another— a few degrees east of south and wei-t of 
north. ('T rouj^hly panilKl to the northeastern side of Ihi^ region. 

In the southern portion the rafges run out one after another 
into tho plains, forming an edition arrangement, thus giving to 
tho system a U'arly north and s<iutli face. 

In Colorado th'- underlying phiti au attainsa greater elevation 
than in any other part of thr Cordilleran system, reiuhing aa 
o.xfrenie height in tho South Park of 10,000 toet. llc-rc, too, tl,e 
ranges reai-h a greater aJtitude than in any oihtr part of ihe 
Uocky mountain system. Numberless peaks ri^c from 14,000 to 
14,500 fei t above searlevel. 1 la-re luc few passes in the ranges rt 
a h*-ight niuch below timber line, which is from 11,000 to 12.00(> 
foet- Northward and southward the plateau decieases gradually 
in height, carrying downward thf ranges which stand upon it. 
Southward through New Mexico the ranges not only decrease in 
height, but hceomo broken and scattering, while the extent of 
level platcjm country becomes much greater. Toward the norths 
in southern Wy(aning, all tlie ranges sl(-p fihruptly. leaving to 
represent the Uocky mountain system only ti line of plateaus of an 
elevation of fi.OOO to 7,000 feet stretching from Bri'lgcr pass, in 
the s<mthcrn part of the territory, northwestward to the South 
pass, at the south end of the AVind Kiver chain. In this latitude 
a immber of ranges rise abruptly fr< ni the plateaU. beginning 
with the Big Horn on the east, ilan tho AVind Kiver range, some 
of whose peaks are more than 13,000 feet in altitude, and the mul- 
titudinous ranges which border the headwitttrs of the Snake 
river. From this point, as the system coniinnes onward into 
Idaho and MontJina. the underlying plateau and the ranges also 
greatly decrease in height, but not in complexity. In the north- 
western part of Montana and northern Idnho. indeed, the whole 
country is a mass of mountain ranges, whose elevation is from 
S. (100 to O.OiiO feet, separated in most cases, by very narrow val- 
leys, tho whole area beirrg densely covered with forests. 

THK PLATEAU I'ROVINCK. 

The region of which the principal or more striking, topographi- 
cal and geological fenturcs arc next to be indicated, is that 1} ing 
south of the tJreat Basin, ami which is drained by the Colorado 
nnil its tributaries. It is included chiefly within the boundaries of 
tho Territories of Utah and .Arizona; but, to a certain extent, 
simihir eharacteristi(? features an found in the adjacent portion ('f 
Colondo.New Mexico, and Nevada. 

For cnnvenienco of geological discussion, that belt of country Provincea. 
which lies between the meridian of Denver, Colorailo. and tho 
Pacific, and b'-twein tho 34th and 4;;d I'arallels. is divided into 
provinces, eiich of which possesses topographical features wkich 
distinguish it from the others. The ea.sternmost i.-^ mimed thePjirk 
Province. It is situateti in the central aiul western parts of Col- 
orado, and extends north of that State into Wyoniiiig, and south 
of it into New Mexico. It is pre-eminently a mountain region, 
having several long ranges of the second <trder of magnitude. 
The structure and forme of these moiintiiins are not exactly simi- 
lar to those of any otiier region now well known, but possess some 
rescniidance to the Alps, though not a very close one. 

To the westward of these ranges in Coltiratlo. there are. rear the Platforms 
we>tcfn boundary of that State, regions hiivinga very different and 
topography. Tle^ mountains disappeiir almost wholly, and in terraces, 
their stead there nro platforms and terraces nearly or quito 
horizontal on their summits or floors, and abruptly terminated by 
long lines or cliffs. They lie at greatly varying altitudes, some as 
high as 1 1.0( feet iibove the sea, others no higlier than 5.000, and 
with still others occupying intermediiite levels. Seldom does the 
surface of the liind rise info conical peaks, or into len»:, narrow, 
crested ridtrcs; but the profiles are lon^-horizontnl lint's, suddenly 
dropidng down miiny hundred or even two thousr.nd feet, upon 
another flat pliiin below. This region has been very appropriately 
narnod, by Pnpfessor Powell, the Plateau Province. It occupies a. 
narrow strip in tho extreme western part of Colorado, a similar 



UNITED STATES 



[the great basin. 



Drainage 
b;i in of the 
'^(ultrado. 



Cliffs. 



Colorinss. 



Gorges and 
ravines. 



Prjiinnfro. 
Channels. 



VegPta- 
Uon. 



/ nita 
Mouutain: 



strip of western New Mexico, a large part of southern AVyoming, 
and rather more than half uf Utah and Arizona. 

This region may be roughly defined as comprising the drain- 
age basin of the Colorado river and its_ tributaries. The upper 
portions of its tributaries flow, however, in the Kocky Mnuntaiiis 
and the Wahsatch range, and enter the plateau region lower in 
their courses. This region lies west of the southern section of 
the Rocky Mountains and east of the Great Basin, and consti- 
tutes a great depression or valley in the Cordilleran region of a 
roughly triangular shape, its apex being in western \V'yoming, 
near the tead of the (Treen river, one of the torks of the Colorado. 
It is a region ot table lands and canons; of table lands horizontal 
or nearly ^o, stretching tor many miles with .scarcely an undula- 
tion in the uniform surface, but suddenly ending abruptly in a 
line of cliffs, perhaps thousands of feet in height, and extending 
in an unbroken line for hundreds of miles. In this region every 
stream is in a gorge, cut hundreds, or even thousands of feet 
b'' low the surface' by the action of water on the soft, stratified 
^andstones and limestones. Most of this region is uninhabited 
and uninhabitable, not only by reason of the climate, which for- 
bids igricnltural pursuits, but from its almost hopeless impassa- 
bieiiess. 

Separating this region from the Great Basin is the AVahsatch 
range, which may be considered as a spur from the Kocky Moun- 
tains. It is a range of considerable breadth and altitude, extend- 
ing from north'i'ru Utah nearly to the middle latitude of th'^ State, 
and descending to the general hn-el of the country on the south 
and ea-t by a series of plateaus, forming a veritable giant's stair- 
wn\. The elevation of this range in its highest portion is from 
1(1,000 to 11,000 teet. one or two peaks only reaching an altitude of 
I'J.OOOfeet. Joining this range in the northern part of Utah is 
tliat of the Uinta, whieh differs from nearly all the ranges of 
the Cordilleran region by having an east and west trend. Itforma 
the southern limit of the Green River basin, the region upon 
which the fugitive name ''Great American Desert" has been latest 
bestowed, and where it is probable it has at last found a final 
resting-place. 

This range far exceeds the Wahsateh in elevation, a number of 
its praks extending skyward nearly 14,001) feet, and its broad, 
plati'au-like summit being for a considerable extent at an eleva- 
tion of 12,000 feet. 

The Grand Canon District is a part of the Plateau Province, 
As already indicated, it lies between the Park and Basin Prov- 
inces, and its topography differs in the extreme from those divi- 
sions found on either side of it. It is the land of tables and ter- 
races, of buttes and mesas, of cliffs and canons. Standing upon 
anv elevated spot where the radius of vision reaches out 50 or 100 
miles, the observer beholds a strange spectacle. The most con- 
spicuous objects are the lofty and brilliantly colored cliffs. They 
stretch their tortuous courses across the land in all directions, yet 
not without system ; here throwing out a great promontory, there 
receding in a deep b;ty. «nd continuing on and on until they sink 
below the horizon or swing behind some loftier mass or fade out 
in the distant haze. Each cliff marks the boundary of a geo- 
graphical terrace, and marks also the termination of some geo- 
logical series of strata, the edges of which are exposed like courses 
of masonry in the scarp- walls of the palisades. Very wonderful at 
times is the sculpture of these majestic walls. Each geological 
formation exhibits in its cliffs a' distinct style of architecture 
which is not reproduced among the cliffs of other formations, and 
these several styles differ as much as those whieh are cultivated 
by different races of men. The character which appeals most 
strongly to the eye is the coloring. The gentle tints of an east- 
ern landscape, the pale blue of distant mountains, the green of 
vernal or summer vegetation, the subdued colors of hill and 
meadow, are wholly wanting here, and in their place is the bril- 
liant red. yellow and white, which are intensified rather than alle- 
viated bv alternating belts of gray. Like the architecture, the 
colors are characteristic of the geological formations, each series 
having its own group and range of colors. They culminate in in- 
tensity in the Permian and Lower Trias, where dark, brownish reds 
aiternate with bands of chocolate, purple, and lavender, so deep, 
rich, and resplendent, that a painter would need to be bold to 
venture to portray them as they are. 

The Plateau country is also the land of canons, in the strictest 
meaning of that terra. Gorges, ravines, canudaa are found, and 
are more or less impressive in every high region ; and in the ver- 
nacular of the west, all such features are termed canons indiscrim- 
inately. But these long, narrow, profound trenches in the roeks, 
with inaccessible walls, are seldom found outi^^ide the plateaus. 
There they are innumerable, and are the almost universal form of 
drainage channels. Nearly everywhere the drainage channels are 
cut from -iOO to 3,000 feet below the general platform of the 
immediate country. They are abundantly ramified, and every 
branch is a canon. All these dniiiiagi^ channels lead down to one 
great trunk channel cleft through the heart of the Plateau Prov- 
ince for eight hundred miles—/ /jr rhunm of the Colorado, and the 
canon of its principal fork, the Green River. 

The region is for themost parta desert of the barrenest kind. At 
levels below 7,';00 feet the heat is intense, and the air is dry in the 
extreme. The vegetation is very scanty, and even the ubiquitous 
sage is sparse and stunted. Here and there the cedar is^ seen, the 
hardiest of arborescent plants, but it is dwarfed and sickly, and 
seeks the shadiest nook<. At higher levels the vegetation becomes 
more abundant and varied. Above 8.000 feet the plateaus are for- 
est clad, and the u'round is carpeted with rank grass and an exu- 
berant growth of beautiful summer flowers. The summers there 
are cool and moist: the winters severe and attended with heavy 
snow-fall. The Plati'au Province is naturally divided into two 
. portions, a northern and a southern. The dividing barrier is the 
Uinta range. This fine mountain platform is, in one respect, an 
Bnomaly among the western ranges. It is the only important 



one which trends east and west. Starting from the eastern flank 
of the Wasatch, the Uintas project eastward more than 150 
miles, and nearly join perpendicularly the Park ranges of Colo- 
rado. Of the two portions into which the Plateau Province is 
thus divided, the southern is much the larger. Both have in com- 
mon the plateau features; their to]>ographies, climates, and phys- 
ical features in general, are of similar types, and their geological 
features and history appear to be closely related. Hut each has 
also its peculiarities. The northern portion is an interesting and 
already celebrated field for the study of the cretaceous strata, 
and the Tertiary lacustrine beds. The southern part of the Pla- 
teau I^rovinee may be regarded as a vast basin, everywhere 
bounded by highlands, except at the southwest, where it opens 
wide and passes suddenly into a region having all the charaeter- 
istics of the Great Basin of Nevada. The northern half of its 
eastern rim consists of the Park ranges of Colorado. Its north- 
ern rim lies urmn the slopes of the Uintas- At the point where 
the Uintas join the Wahsateh, the boundary turns sharply to the 
south, and for 2oO miles the High Plateaus of Utah constitute 
the elevated western margin of the Province. A crude conception 
of this region mav be gained by imagining three lines, each 200 
milesloug. placed in the positions of three sides of a scfuare: ihe 
fourth side being for the moment neglected. Upon the eastern Utah 
side, conceive the ParK Ranges of Colorado; upon the northern, i luteaus. 
the Uintas; and upon the western side, the southern per' ion of the 
AVahsatch and tlie High Plateaus of Utah ; and all these highlands 
having altitudes ranging from 9.000 to 12,01:0 feet above si-a-level, 
while the included area varies from 5.000 to7,0tiofeet in height. The 
.space thus partially bounded may represent the northern part of 
thrsouthern Plateau Province. Along the line required for tho 
fourth and south side of the complete square there is no boundary. 
The topography continues on beyond it to the southward, and also 
widens out both west and east and overspreads an additional area 
more than twice as great as that already defined. From the east- 
ern coast of the High Plateaus maybe obtained an instructive 
overlook of the northern portion of ihe southern Plateau country. 

Throughout the great cirbuniferous age the entire area of the Carbonif- 
Plateau Province was sulunerged beneath the ocean. Deposition ei ous age. 
of .'strata went on continuously, leaving at the close of this age a 
subaqueous surface, whieh was exceedingly flat, and, except 
around the borders of the Province, quite free from any apprecia- 
ble inequalities. • The thickness of the carboniferous system is 
from 4,500 feet to 5,000 feet in the interior of the Province, but, 
around its borders, and in the Uinta mtuintains. it i« sometimes 
found in far greater volume. After the Carboniferous came tho 
Permian age. in which were laid down from 8i to 1.500 feet of 
sandy shales. The same state of affairs continued through the 
Trias, during which period sandstone beds were depositeil. 
Directly upon the Trias rests the Jurassic. — a wonderful bed of 
sandstone 800 to 1,200 feet thick, and very white and sugary. Next Sandstone, 
comes the Cretaceous system, — a mass of yellow sandstones with 
clayey and marly shales, aggregating from 4.000 to 5.000 feet 
thick. At the close of the Cretaceous period there are evidences 
that extensive disturbances took place, resulting at some places 
in the dislocation and flexing of the strata. 

The last period of deposition was marked by the accumulation of 
the Eocene beds. Around the southern flanks of the Uintas their 
aggregate thickness exceeds ft, 000 feet, but southward the upper 
members disappear, and SO miles north of the Grand Canon only 
about l.OiiO to 1,200 feet make their appearance. In_ the course of Geological 
geological history, this area, which had been a region of deposi- history, 
tion and subsidence, became one of elevation and denudation. 
Since that change took place, the havoc wrought by erosion has 
been stupendous, the thickness of strata remover! exceeding 
10,000 feet in some considerable areas, and averaging probably 
5,500 to 6,000 feet over the entire Province. 

THE GKEAT BASIN. 

West of the Plateau Province is the Great Basin, so named by 
Fremont, because it has no drainagf to the ocean. 

The first general idea of the drainage and principal topographi- 
cal fi-atures of the Great Basin is due to Bonneville, who fitted out 
a party which started from Green River with the intention of 
making the entire circuit of Great Salt Lake. This, as Irving Bonneville 
states, was a favorite idea of Bonneville's; and in preparing for and his 
this expedition all the resources at his command were taxed. The party, 
party, consisting of forty men. did not, however, succeed in carry- 
ing out Bonneville's plans, but were driven, by the difticult to- 
pography and utter barrenness of thecountry on the south side of 
the lake, toward the west, traveling in which direction they soon 
came upon tho headwaters of the river called upon Bonneville's 
maps "Mary or Ogden's," but which is now known as the Hum- 
boldt. This river they followed until they found that "it lost 
itself in a great swampy lake (the sink of the Humboldt), to which 
there was no apparent discharge." From here the party crossed 
the Sierra Nevada and made their way to Monterey. Bonneville's 
party was thus the first to explore and map the route afterward 
'generally followed by emigrants, and along which the Central Pa- 
cific—the first trans-continental railroad— was built. The peculiar 
course of Bear River, here already noti:-ed, was shown on this 
map, and the general character of the drainage of the Paeifio 
coast was, for the first time, correctly indicated by Bonneville. 
The first working out of anv of the details of the topography of 
the Gn^at Basin is due to Butler Ives, a topographer in the em- 
ploy of the Central Pacific Railroad, the directors of this work 
having been de.sirous of ascertaining whcthc'- there was any prac- 
ticable route across the Basin other than that through thi; valley 
of the Humbcddt; which, however, was the one ultimately 
adopted, all other routes having been found too difficult. Still 
further and more detailed explorations and surveys were made 
on the western side of the Basin, first by the California (leologioal 
Survey, and later by the United States Engineers; and a belt a 



THP: APrALACIIIAN itKiaoN.] UNITED STATES 



hundred iriles in width whs nUo surveyed ncross this reRion, stnrt- 

iuK fruiu the crost of the .Siena Neviidii iiiul KuiiiK iiijit tn the 

easUTU hiu-c of the Hoi-kv Mimutjiiiis. Tlii:* bdi w;is tht- tield 

occupied by iho Forlioth l*tn'iillol Survey uudor the direction uf 

rhiroiice Kinn. 

ropoKraphy The tuponraphy of the Great Basin is wholly peculiar, and 

if the bears no ro>embIanee to either of the two just uieiitiont-d. It oon- 

irt-Ht t«i IS alargo nuuil)er of nin^res. all uf whioU are v«Ty narrow and 

Lja8in. short, separated from eauii uther i)y wide inu'ivals uf smooth. 

barn'M plains. Tht* niountaiiis are of a low nrd<T of iiiaKnitudo 

foriheuiost nail. thuuKh soiuu of the naiKes and peaks attain 

considerable dimensions. Their appearance is strikinRly diCfer- 

ent fnuii the noble and pieturesqne outlines displayed in Colo- 

rad >. They are j;ij;B 'd. wild and unpraoef ul in their aspect, and. 

wh-lher viewed from far or near, ropel rather than invite the im- 

ni,'iuation. 

Thi' Wahsatcli. however, is an exoeption. This noble range is 
properly a imrt uf the Biisiu Province, and is one of the fine-t and 
m ist picturesquf of the West, but so completely dues it contrast 
with iho otlii r ba>iu ranges that it mny bo regardinl as an annm- 
olv amuiiK them. Thu topographical features of this recion are 
als ) fuan I outside of the limits which Fremont assigned to the 
lir^'ai lla-in. and reach southward towards Arizona, and north- 
%vari towards Idaho and Oregon. 

This (ireat Ba>*iniS^of enormous extent, comprising nearly all of 
Ni'vada and large part-^ of Utah. Wyoming, Idih'i. OreBon. and 
California. Instead of being one great basin as its namo implies, 
it consists in reality of a number of smaller basins. It is trav- 
ersfd by a series of narrow ranges, which are in general highly 
continuous, extending sometimes for hundreds of miles, having a 
penoral north and south trend. Between these ranges lie narrow, 
flat valleys floored (vith detritus fruui the mountains. The niin- 
fail tiver tliis region is so light, and the atmosphere so dry. that 
there .are few living streams within its wliole expanse. The little 
rivuh'ts which trickle down the mountain side in the spring are 
absoHud in the vallovs at th-'ir bases, so that each valley in very 
many cises is a sink for its own waters. On the east and the west 
eides. hnwev<'r,nt iht? bases respeeiivety of the Wnhsatch and the 
Sierra Xevoda. is a lake, or a series of lakes, into which flow oou- 
si'lerable bodies of water from these ranges. 
5urround- On the east is (ireat .^alt Lake, having an extent of 2.31U square 
ings of miles, and receiving drainage from an area of ;V2.4')U square miles. 

Sreat the hirgi-r part of which consists of high mountains. Thf rapidity 

Basin. of evaporation in tliis dry climate is so great thai the lake is kept 

at approximately thc-^amo lev*'l (h'spite the liberal contributions 
ma'li) to it by its tributary streams. 

The middle portion of the basin, along a line running down 
eastern Ni'vada, is more elevated than that of the east or the west 
side, forming a sort of division, or water parting, between tlie two 
portions. Such of the waters as do nut immediately sink flow off 
towaftl the Great Salt T-ake on the one side and the sinks at the 
base of tbe Sierras on the other. The latter arc known as the 
Cars n Lake and sink, Humboldt Lake. Mud and Pyramid Lakes. 
f4»rniing a line along the western part of Nevada. 

Into ihi- system «»f sinks flow not, only the streams from the 
etat -lope of the Sierras. Init the HnmboMt River— a stream 
wljich rises in northwestern Utah. and. flowing directly across the 
trends of numberless ranges, receiving more or less water from 
thoni all. r aches the Carson sink scarcely larger than at its head. 
A third system of siinks may be mentioned, viz.. that lying in 
central Oregon, of which Harney's Lake is the principal one. 
rhe Pacific It remains to give a slight sketeh of the rani-es of the Pacific 
Divition. divi>ion. They consist of the Sierra Nevoila of California, the 
Cascade range of Oregon and Washington Territory, an'l the sys- 
tem of Coau ranges which border the Pacific. These ranges have 
one very marked feature in common; they are almost l>reci-n_ly 
parallel throughniit to the line of the Pacific coist. Trending in 
thf southern liJilf considerably east of south, they turn at about 
the panillel of 42° to a course almost directlv north. 
Cascade The great mass of the Cascade range has tlie form of a volcanic 

range. plat'-au of an (deviition very little above the country on its east- 

ern b »rd r. .At intervals along its crest, however, are stationed 
high volcanic Peaks, ranging from 8.000 to more than U.HiiO feet 
above sen-level. Among tho-e may he mentioned Mount Rainier. 
in Washington territory, 14.444 feet high ; Mount Shasta, UAi2 
fe"t high, in California; and Mount Hood, in Oregon. 11, 22.'-' feet 
in height. In north-rn California, j'ist south of Mount Shasta, 
the rangf is very much br<»ken down, and at tliis point the Pitt 
RivT. th ' head stream of the Sacramento, has cut its wny 
throuich th'- range into California. Beyond this gorge again the 
range c mtinu-s. with but slight chnnge in its characteristics, until 
we have pa sed 'h- head of the F«'athcr River, where its char- 
acter ''hanges from that of a volcanic range to one of granite and 
gnt'issic rocks. With this ehange coines an incronse in elevation, 
at first gradual, but ultimat'dy attaining enormous proportions 
obour latitude .36° 3V. Hero the range has a groat breadth, while 
most of the p^'ttks reach elevations of more than 14. (KK) feet, and 
the passe^J h ivo an elevation of about rj.OO* feet. In this reirion 
is the highest i)eakof the Sierras. Mount Whitni-y. which falls but 
little short of 15.000 foct, and is the culminating point of this 
group. 

West of the Sierras and the Cascades lies the great valley ex- 
tending from Pugot Sound southward into the lower part of 
California. It is walled in from the Pacific on the west by the 
Coast ranges. In Washington territory it is drained by numi-rous 
minor streams flowing through th*- Cascade and the Coast 
ranges into the Columbia River and Paget Sound. In Oregon it 
compri-ies the valley of the Willarnette and the upp-r valleys of 
th*" Kugiieand the I'mpqua Rivers. In California it comprises the 
valley of rhe Sacramento and thr* San .Joaquin. These valleys are 
separated froin one another by cross ranges of inonntain.*, whieh 
have the character of spurs sent down by the Cascade range, join- 



ing the Coast ranges on the west. The great valley is terminated 
by the westward trend of the Coast ranges and their junction with 
the Sierra Nevada in southern Californni. 

Of the V'oast ranges little need be said, except thot they are of Coast 
minor elevation etiiupared witli the eastern jairt of the system, i.mgcs. 
ninging from 3.UI)0 to 4.i W feet south of the bay of San Frauci.sco 
to 5.0011 or b.lKiO feet in the northern part of the State. They 
have, however, a very important effect in uKaiifying tiie elimato 
of the great valley— an i tfcet <iuite as important as that ut the 
Sierra Nevada and the Cascade ranges upon the elinuile of the 
region lying to the east of them. Want of navigability is tho 
cliaracteristie of all tho streams whieli drain the Cordilleras. In- 
stead of vast stretclies open to steam navigation, as witli tho 
Mississippi and its trilmtarii-s. allowing aeees> to areas 2.i'i and 
3.(100 miles away from its ni<»uth, we have the Culunuio, which i.» of 
littleaceount for tho purposes of navigation, the Columbia, ^^iIh 
two portages before the Cascade range is crossed, and the Sacra- 
mento and the San .Joaquin, navigable for moderate sized boats 
for only a few score of miles. With the^e exetptions there is no 
stream of any iniportam-e opi ning access to the interior along the 
whide Pacific coast. On the other hand, the amount of wnter- Rivers, 
power stored in the streams of the west is fabulous. All the 
streams fall rapidly through nearly their entire courses, and in 
and near the mountains there is an abundance of water. 

THK Ari'.M.ACHiAN ItKCION. 

Leaving now the Cordilleras, we have next to consider the east- 
ern border of our territory— the northeast and southwest-trend- 
ing mass of ranges— known as the Apimlachian region. In this 
portion of our brief resume of the phjsioil features of the United 
States we shall have to rely mainly on the labors of others, and 
esjiccially on those of Prot. Ouyi.t and ut Prof. J. P. Leslie, ol the 
Pennsylvania (leolngical Sur\<y. wlui have labored with great 
zeal ami ability in making the topography of our eastern border 
intelligible. 

A glance at the map shows that the central portion of North 
America, fnuu the (Julf of .Mexico to the Arctic ocean, is a regiitn 
of great rivrrs and lakes, and not of mountains. A sinking of 
the land of less than l.niiij feet would open a water-way through 
from ncirth to south ; 2,0i'0 feet of such a sinking, or an e<juivah nt 
rise of tin- ocean, would divide our territi)ry into two distinct ami 
remote portions. On the east we should havo a comparatively 
narrow belt of land, extending in a northeast nnd southwest 
direction from Pennsylvania to Oeorgia, with groups of outlying 
islands on the north, esipecially in altout latitude 41°. where tho 
tops of the Green, the White, and the Adirondack mountains 
would rise in the form of lofty and precipitous islands above tho 
waste of waters. On the west the mass of land remaining uncov- 
ered wculd be of grand, almost continental dimen.'-i'>ns, for its 
breadtli would bo fully equal to 1,500 miles, narrowing as wo fol- 
lowed it northward, while in length, north and south, it would 
extend entirely across our present territory. The breadth of 
the ocean separating these masses of land would be not far from 
a thousand miles. 

The Appalachian chain extends from the promontory of Gasp6, Appalo- 
in a general southwesterly direction, for a distance of about l.'A^^O chian ohaJn. 
miles, into Alabama, where it dies out, nnd is buried under the 
horizcmtal strata of more recent geological formations, which 
cover nearly the whole surface of that state. Tin- base from 
which this chain rises on the eastern side is the Atlantic seaboard, 
which, in the early hi^^tory of the United States, seemed to be tho 
whcde country, ati»l which is still commercially thr most impor- 
tant, and is the seat of our largest cities. The plain is slightly 
inclined toward thi- .'Vtlantic, and its elevation ab<i\e the sea is 
inconsiderable. In New England it hardly exceed^ .'il'" to-P'Ofeet; 
but toward the south, after passing the bay of N<w York, wh< re 
it is nearly at the sea level, it gains in altitude, and also in width, 
finally attnining a height of a thousand feet at thc' base of tho 
mountains and a breadth of .^ome 2' miles. The western base of 
the Appalachian range is a pliiteau region, which descentls grad- 
ually toward the great lakes and the tributaries of tlie Ohio hi; v- 
inga general eU'\atioii of a thousand feet or more, but deeply 
gashed bv the streams which traverse it nnd run in vallcvs 
depressed from 800 to 500 feet below the geuernl level of tho 
country. 

The Appalachian chain presents, in many of its features, a most 
marked contrast to the Cordilleras just described. Prof. Ouyot 
calls attention to a conspicuous feature of the most folded portion 
of tho Appalachians, characterizing the chain though its entire 
length; that is, tlie existence of a great central valli v. running 
through the system from norihea^t to soiitliwrst. which can bo 
traced without diffieulty, although not inrltctly uniform in its 
development. I tis the Lake Champhtin and Hudson River valley in 
New York, the Kittatinny valley of Pennsylvania, tlic great valley 
of Virginia, and finally, still farther south, the valley of Fast Ten- 
nessee. The chain, or the system of chains, borderiig this central 
<lepressi(Mi on the southi-ast is also a pr-rsistent feature of the Apjia^ 
Inchian system; forit extends, with but few interruptions, from 
Vermont to Alabama, being known by a variety ol names ns it 
passes from one state into another. It is the Oreen Munntain rnngo 
of Vermont, the Highlands of New Y'ork, the South Mountains of 
Pcnn.'^ylvania, the Blue Ridge, of Virginia, and. finally, the IroQ» 
Smoky, and Unaka mountains of North ('aroliiui and Tennessee. 

Possessing these features in common as a whole, the Ai>pa- 
lachian chain presents three subdivisions, eachexhiliiting its own 
well-mnrked peculiirity of structure. Those are the northern, 
extending from tJiispe to tho Hudson ; the middle, from New York 
to the Kanawha, or New river, in \'irginia: the southern from 
N^w river to thf southwestern extremity of the system. ICach of 
these subdivisions has its iiecuiiar curvature and general direction. 
The northern trends to the north from the Hudson river to near 
the Canada line, there bends to the eastward, sweeping a great 



UN i T E D H T A l E tS [thk ArrALAcniAN ke;gion. 



curve, so as to present on the whole its concavity to the southeast; 
the middle sub livision aNo curves quite regularly, the ndgvs t) end- 
ing from fiiyt and west around to southwest, so bat the concavity 
laces tin Atlantic shore; while the most southern portion of the 
ratigi-;, from New river southward. b<-'nds to the west again, so as 
to tyi'iii a f^i'ntle curve concave toward th'- northwest. 

T'"emo:^t northern division of thu three isiiuite distiuct from the 
one next ^»tuth. both geographically and geologically. Itincludes 
all the iQiuntain groups and ranges nurth a:id east of the valleys 
of the Mohawk and the Hudson rivers, which make a complete 
break through the system, both vertically and longitudinally, 
f jrmitig Lhi'grL-at naturil highway ln'tweon the east and the west, 
or b 'tween th ■ great lakes and the Atlantic seaboard. This was 
the first route across the country whieh was traversed by canal 
and by railroad. So complete is the physical break here that a rise 
of th'> oC'-an of 400 feet onb' would separate all the extensive region 
in<'iude(l between the f^t. Lawrence, the Atlantic ocean, and the 
jludsoii ind Mohawk valleys into a great island entirely detached 
from tlie rest of the continent. A rise of only UO feet only would 
detach all that country which lies east of the Hudson and Lake 
Chnmplain. 
Oeogra-'h- In any geographical treatment of this eastern group of the 
icdtiat- Appalachians the subdivisions taken will necessarily be rather 
meut. artificial, for the mass of elevation is very irregular in its develop- 

ment. The most continuous ranges are the White mountains, the 
(Jreen (Mountains, and the Adinmdacks. Of the first-named 
group Mount Washington is the culminating point, 6,288 f -et 
tiigh: of thelast mentioned, Tahawas. or iMount Marcy. with an 
a'titude of 5.37V) feet, is the dominating peak. Greylock, in 
Ma-isachusetts (3,505 feet), and Mount Mansfield, in Vermont, 
4.1-3 I feet, are the highest points in those states. 

The line of summits extending through Massachusetts and New 
Haaip-hire. bet^inning with Wachusett. on the south, and extend- 
ing up to the White mountains, through Monadnock. Sunapee. 
K arsarge, and other peaks, is broken and irregular. Both the 
AVhite mountains and the Adirondaeks are rather isohited masses, 
while the Ureen Mountains proper are in more intimate connection 
with the Canadian range, which terminates in Gaspe. 

The Central division of the Appalachian chain extends from 
the Hudson river to the Kanawha, which makes an almost cnm- 
plete cut across the chain, heading lu the Blue Ridge, and mark- 
ing an important_ change in the character of the topography. 
This ceritral division is about 450 miles in length. It is very 
narrow toward its northern end, but widens out in Pennsylvania, 
decreasing again in Virginia. It is composed of a considerable 
number of subordinate chains, much curved toward the west, and 
remarkable for their regularity, their parallelism, their abrupt 
d'clivities, and their moderate elevation, both relative and abso- 
lute, whieh rarely rises to 2.5'iO feet above the sea-level. 

West of this division of the Appalachian chain is the great pla- 
teau, which occupies all that part of New York which lies 
south of the Mohawk, and also the northwestern part of Pennsyl- 
vania, aiid reaches an elevation nf-ar Lake Erie of 2,000 feet. 
From this table-land the drainage descends by the great lakes to 
the St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico by the Ohio, and to the 
Atlantic by the Susquehanna, which breaks across the whole 
chain, finding its way in the most unexpected manner through 
gap5 in the different ranges. 

The topography of the App:i]achians in Pennsylvania has been 
carefully worked out l)y the State (geological Survey, and it is so 
remarkable in its character that some additional details may 
with propriety bo given in regard to that portion of the chain. 

According to Prof. H. I). Rogers, the mountain-zone of Penn- 
sylvania may be divided into five well-marked parallel belts, 
which are as follows, when enumerated in order from the east 
toward the west: 1st. The South mountains, already mentioned 
as being the continuation of the Ilighlands of New York, and the 
equivalent of the Blue Ridge of Virginia. 2d. The great Appa- 
lachian valley. 3d. The central Appalachian ridg'-s. or the 
Appalachian chain proper. 4th. The sub-Alicghany vallev. 5th. 
The Alleghany Mountain, or the southeast escarpment of the 
Aileghanv plateau. 

The South Mountains have already been alluded to as part of 
the system of ranges bordering the great central depression of the 
Appalachians on the east. In Pennsylvania this belt cnnsists of 
two detached ranges of hills, one of which is the prolongation of 
the New York Highlands, the other the northeastern termination 
of the Blue Ridge. Both of these groups of hills have a moderate 
elevation in Pennsylvania, hardly exceeding 600 or 700 feet. 

The Appalachian valley, or Kittatinny valley, as it is usually 
called in Pennsylvania, stretches from the Delaware to Maryland, 
forming a :)irt of the great central valley previouslv mentioned. 
It has an ehvation of from 200 to 600 feet, and forms a broad, 
moderaudy undulating plain, having a wid'h of from 10 to 18 
mdes. This valley is. beyond doubt, one of the most favored 
parts of our country— climate, soil, mineral resources, and scenery 
all combining to make it attractive to settlers. 

The third ilivision, or the Appalachian chain proper, may be 
thus described, using nearly the language of Professor H. D. 
Rogers: It is a c -mplex chain of long, narrow, verv level moun- 
tain ridges, separated by long, narrow, parallel valleys. These 
ridges sometimes end abruptly in swelling knobs, and sometimes 
taper 'df .in long, slender points. Their slopes are singularly uni- 
form, being in many cases unvaried by ravine or gully for many 
miles; in other instances, they are trenched at eciual intervals 
with great regularity. Their crests are, for the most part, sharp. 
Jind they preserve an extremely equable elevation, being only 
here and there interrupted by notches or gan^. which sometimes 
descend to the water-level, so as to give passage to the rivers. The 
whole range is the combined result of an ee-vation of the strata in 
long, slender, parallel ridges, wave-like in form, and of excessive 
erosion of them by water; and the present configuration of the 



surface is one wiiuh demonstrates that n r^ n.aikable and as yet 
little understuoLl seiies of geological events has been eoneerncd in 
its formation. The ridges, which are but the remnants of the 
eroded strata, are \::riously arranged jn groups, with long, nar- 
row cre.-rs, si.me ol which, preserve remarkable straightness for 
great distances, while others bend widi a prolonged and regular 
sweep. In many instances, two narrow, contiguous parallel 
mountain crests unite at their extremities and inclose a deep, 
narrow, oval valley, which, with its sharp mountain sides, bears 
not unfrequeutly a marked resemblance to a long, slf'nder sharp- 
liointed canoe. 

Between the Appalachians and the Rocky Mountains there are 
within our borders no connected masses of mountain ranges; iso- 
lated hill ranges rise like islands jit various points, as in Missouri 
and Arkansas, and there are a few short rangp> on the south shore 
of Lake Superior. 

North of the great lakes and the St. Lawrence, however, there is 
the dividing ridge which separate> the water> llowiiir Into the last 
named stream from those which run into Hudson's bay. This is 
an imperfeclly known region, wonderfully cut up by rivers and 
dotted with lakes. The highest p(dnt of the Laurentian range, as 
these mountains are called, is supposed to he where the Saguenay 
cuts the chain, and 4,000 feet is given as the approximate eleva- 
tion, while peaks in the parallel ridges nearer the St. Lawrei ce 
exceed half that height. Among the summits seen with such pic- 
turesque effect from Quebec, Mt. St. Ann is the highest, and the 
elevation is given by Bayfield at 2,687 feet. 

This range falls off in elevation as we follow it west, and in the 
country between the Ottawa and hike Huron the highest summits 
do not api>ear to exceed I, .500 to 1,700 feet. The range is made up 
of rounded hills, densely wooded on its higheiit portion, almost ex- 
clusively with coniferous trees. Its valleys are very wide and full 
of great jionds and lakfs, so that one may traversi almo-t tlie 
whole region with the aid of the birch canoe. Sir William Logan 
noted, in 1863. that over a thousand lakes have already been laid 
down on the maps of the Canadian portion of theLaurentian moun- 
tains, although the region had been as yet only imperfectly ex- 
plored. 

East of the Appalachian system, and separating it from the The 
Atlantic, is the strip of country known as the Atlantic plain. This Atlantic 
is the portion of the United States first occupied, and it is to-day plains, 
the most densely settled portion of the country. In New England 
this region has a widely varying breadth and rough, irregular 
surface, while its soil in general is not sutficicntly rich to enable 
the farmers of this region to compete successfully in the produc- 
tion of wheat or corn with those of the Mississippi valley. 
^The breadth of the Atlantic plain is least about the bay of New 
York, the ranges of the Appalachian .system here reaching nearly 
t<i the sea--eoast Southward from this point it increases gradually 
in breadth, till it reaches its maximum in South Carolina and 
(Georgia. This part, which comprises by far the larger iiortion of 
the Atlantic plain, has a very uniform, gentle slope from the foot 
of the mountains to the sea. Tiie only feature about it which 
requires notice is the line of sepnration between the metamorphic 
formations, extending eastward from the Appalachians, and the 
recent stratifi<^d beds. This line is marked very generally by 
falls or rapids in the streams flowing seaward, which are in very 
many cases the sites of valuable water-powers, and mark the head 
of navigation in all streams of any considerable size, as in the 
Potomac at Georgetown, and in the .James at Richmond. 

The general character of the coast-line may be briefly described. General 
In Maine it is bluff and rocky, with deep water immediately off character, 
the shore, which is deeply indented by numerous bays and arms of 
the sea. These in turn are dotted by hundreds of islands of 
greater or less size. Proceeding southward, the character of the 
coast gradually changes from this bluff, rocky nature at fi'-st to 
sandy beaches, as in Massachusetts and on Long Island, with 
small extents of coast swamn. This character develops farther in 
New Jersey, so that we have along the whole coast a line of sandy 
islands or reefs, back of which are coast marshes and swamps. 
The general character of these is briefly described bv Professor 
Cook in bis volume on the geology of New Jersey, under the head 
of "Tide Marshes": 

They are of very recent origin, and. in fact, are formed largely 
within the memory of the present generation. The interval be- 
tween high-water mark on the shore and the beaches or barriers on 
the sea-side is mainly occupied by marsh There are between 
250.000 and 300,000 acres of marsh on the coast of New Jersey, 
The marshes are C()vered with grass, weeds, or coarse sedge; there 
is no growth of wood upon them; the upper surface is near the 
level of high water, the parts near the water-course being high 
enough not to be covered by ordinary tides, while the parts more 
remote from the water-cuirse are lower, so as to be always wet. 
Underneath, the sod whieli covers them is made of soft earth of 
various qualities: the depth of this underlying mud is variable; 
all. however, coming within the extreme deitth of 40 feet. 

Farther southward the breadth of thi- swamp section along the 
coast increases. On the eastern shore of Maryland there is inside 
of the line of reefs a section, several miles in breadth, of swamp 
and overflowed land— a paradise for sea-fowl and for the hunter. 

In North Carolina the reefs inclose, besides immense swamp 
regions, large bays or sounds, such ns Pamlico and Albemarle. 
The character of the swamps and reefs of this state is well given 
by Professor W. C. Kerr [Geology of Nortli Carolina, vol. 1, 1875): 

The chain of long, linear sand islands called "The Banks." 
which fringe the entire coast, constitute? a very remarkable fea^ 
ture of the region. Though composed of drifting sands, they form 
nn impregnable barrier to the waves of the Atlantic. They are. 
in fact, sand dunes of various elevations, from a few feet above 
tide level (in many cases broken over by storm tides) to 25 or 30 
feet, and sometimes more, as in Killdevil hills, along Corrituck 
sound. The breadth of these islands varies from a few rods to 



THE POLITICAL ^^^Iil)IViS10^S. ] UKITICD STATES 



more than 2 miles. The largest of tbeiu, tind tbo niae^t. U known 
as Ualteias island, the oiiiiteriiuio>t point of whioli is tlic woll- 
knuwii capo Uatteias. Tht-si- islands aro cuinposcd partly of Hut 
uiursbes luid partly of swell^ audridgi-s of bi'ach-sand. which the 
wind ha:^ heaped in ridgfji. ottcu t!tr buyond the reach uf the 
highest wave.-*. 

As Llio .''jind :tnd i-omu.inutod shells aro rolled boi-k in waves 
from tlie beach i>v ihe wuids. thuy are lu part caught aud fixfil by 
fltnigKliiJg tuttsof eourse t;riis>. u hich ba.** the power ot ct>utiiiuuu8 
KTowtli upward with the li.-e ul the kuobs and ridges of sand, and 
tncy !ue in pari carried uver into the tlats and marshes aud the 
t^b:i!luM- ^uuiula Oeyond. which are thus i;ra<iu!tlly silting up. The 
banks aro Keuerally eovered with low, ^c^lbby thickets of cedar, 
livt»-oak, pine, yau))uu, myrtle, and u number of smaller shrubby 
growtns. 

Sicorps, poeotiiuft a»d «nr« una*.— There is a larKC nRtrrejrato 
of Ut..LvTy '.boiweoii 3.ol'U uuU 4M^*i square miles), niostly in the 
CouhiiC:> iJoriicriuK ou the sea and tlu- sounds, known as swamp 
iaud>. They are lucully deBiKnatcd "dismals.'* or ''pueosins," of 
■wbieh iho Ureat Uistnal Swamp, on the borders of Xorth Carolina 
and Vir;,'inia, is a if«'od typo. They differ, essentially in tluir 
cbuiiict.^ii.-tic foaiures frnm an oidinary swamp. They aro not 
alluvial irat-'ts, ur subject to ovorllow. On the contrary, they 
ueoui uu tlie divides or vvaler-sheds between tho rivers and sounds, 
aud lire irequeutly elevated uuiuy feet above the adjacent streams, 
oi whii:h ihuy are the sources. Smne of them are in lar^o part 
mere pent swamps or b )gs, licinc eharacterizid by the occurfLiico 

01 an accumulation ot docajeJ and doeayinK venciation. from 1 or 

2 to lo leet deep ami oven more, which, with the growing plants, 
aces as a >ponge. arresting «u- retarding the escape of the rain- 
water, whclbcr by evaporation or ettiux. The prominent ingredi- 
ents are peal and tine sand, m various proportions, and. when of 
any agricultural value at all, there are also small proportions of 
clay, iron, lime, and alkalies. The vegetation varies with the 
character of the foil, aud serves, therefore, as uii index of its fer- 
tiluy. The prevalent ^Towth of the best swamp soils is black fruin. 
popior, cypress, ash. aud inuple. As the s ^il becomes more peiity, 
the proportion of cynress increaiies. Where iuuipcr abounds 
peat is in excess, and tne soil of little value or none. On the best 
lands there is often besides a rank growth uf canes; but such a 
growth is also often found on soils too peaty to be of any value. 
Much of the poorest and most worthless tracts of swamp, which 
are covered with several feet ot half decayed wood and other 
vegetable matter saturated with water, is occupied by a stunted 
and scattered growth of bay. swainp pine, and other scrubby vege- 
tation; or, if the drainage be a little better, with a thiekcty growth 
of bays, gallberries, and a few other shrubs, with an occasional 
pine and maple. Most of the large bodies ot swamp contain lands 
Delunging to all these descripti-ms, and inclose, oosides. within 
their boundaries, knoll>. hummocks, belts, and ridges, like islands, 
of tirm land, and some ot tluMii iarg- areiis of barren, sandy soil, 
covered with a tangle of braml)!es and tufts ot sedge, and in the 
midillo of several ot ihem occur f resh-watev lakes of considerable 
extent. 

These swamps are, taken as a whole, quite well settled, a birge 
proportion of the inhabitants being colored. This is particularly the 
case in South Carolina, in which state much of the swiimpy lower 
coast region is utilized for rice plantations. Tho Okeelennkee 
swamp, of treor^'ia and Florida, is rather an inland swamp, aud is 
d'-seril>ed elsewhere. The Kverglades of Kloridii. which appear to 
oiler great difliculties to settlement, are als() sketched in another 
part of this repiirt. The .--wampy region alonf,' the coast extends, 
with but few minor inierrnptious. all the way down the Athintic 
coast and iiround the 'iult. It is not, however, i-o markedly 
fharacteristic along the liulf co;ist in Alabama and Mississipjii ns 
fi'.rther west. In Louisi.'in-i it h;is a great bn-atlth. aud is almost 
unlnhabitablo. In Texa-*. although the character of tho coast 
continues to be the same so far iis roh'.tes to the line of low. sandy. 
outlying islands, yet the area of the coa<t swamp becomes very 
much Iviss, being eonfined to a small patch about the Sabine lake 
and narrow strii'S along a number of ilif streams. M'hetheritis 
due to geological ciiu.-**'.-*. or to tho lighter rainfall upon this sec- 
tion of ihv coast, is u question which there is not space to discuss 
here. 

The broken, irregular course of the whole Atlantic and (Julf 
coast affortis many excellent harbors, particularly on the New 
England coast, where the harbors are larire, deep, and well shel- 
tered; farther southwanl the enlranees are nnrmw and shelving. 
and are liable to be choked up by saml drif l* d in by storms. The 
Hreams in nearly all ca-*i-s form bars across their mouths, formed 
ly thedetritus br-aight down from the upper waters. 

The Pacific coast, as conir'ured to the Atlantic, is extremely sim- 
ile. It contains ft-w harbors of jmy value to navigation. Th'isc 
jt S".n Diego and San PVancisco are tlu' principn! and almost the 
only ones. The coast is, in general, bluff and rocky, and the water 
is deep immediately off ^hore. 

THK POLITJCAl, AND NATURAL SUilPIVISIONS. 

Having given a description of the physical character of the 
•reac-'vered by the United States, without reference to political 
divisions, it becomes necessary to stiite how this region is divided 
poliiically. and how these divisions ctiu bo grouped, in a manner 
&a natural us possi'de. 

Some difTieullies are thrown in tho way of such a subdivision 
of tbo country as shall meet with gi-ncral acceptJince by thefaet 
that some of the States und Territories arc so large that they 
include areas of very different physical character; and also 
becau-^e a nomeiicbiture was introduced, and extensively made 
use of. when one half the present area of the country was ?«> little 
known or considered that a name for it was not thought of as 
being necessary. 

The area of the United States is at present divided into fortv- 



nine subdivisions, excluding Alaska. There are forty-four States* 
three Territories, and two other ^ubdivi^ion8. neither States nor 
Territorie>— the District uf Columbia and the Indian Territory. 

Any Territory is likely, at any time, to be r-ceived into tlio 
Union as a Stiitc; and this may be done by sultdivjding the Ter- 
riiory. making a State of one portion and allowing the remain- 
der to remain in a Territorial condition, or by admiiting the 
whole as one Stale, or by dividing it into two or moie Stales. Only 
once has a State been divided alier having been received into the 
Union— namely, Virginia— and this was the result of the Civil 
War; and it is not possible to say under what circumstances such 
a thing is likely to Iiappen again. N<)r has any State been 
remanded back to the Territorial condition after having been 
roeiived into the Union; although one Stale— Nevada— baa less 
than half the population required for the election of one repre- 
sentative to C^^ng^e^s, according to the last iipportionment. baaed 
on the cen.-us (tl 1880, There is, in fact, no provision in the Con- 
stitution for this exigency. 

The desirability of grouping these forty-nine political divisions 
(Alaska being omitted lis not continuous witli the re.^t of thr 
United Stat'-si according to th'dr geograpldcal situation anc 
tojiographical and climatic conditioijs,8o that different regions 
ma\' be spokoii of by some collective name, will be evident to all. 

The plan suggested for the subdivision of the area included 
within tlie United Stiitr.- by Mr. Gannett, gcogrnphcrof the c«nsu» 
nf IHhO. was *' to divide the country into three great diTisions, cor- 
responding to the three primary topographical divisions of the 
Oimntry: the Atlanlic region, the region of the (ireat Valley, and 
the Western orCordillcian region.'* The physical character of thc.|;e 
different rcBions has already been imlicatc-d at some length in Phv-icl 
the preceding pages. The region of the Great Valley is called by ChuKicser. 
Mr. Gannett til'- <'entral Region, which is again subdivided into 
two parts— the Northern Central and the Southern Central— the 
Ohio Uiver and the southern boundary of Missouri and Kansas 
being the dividing'line. The Atlantic Division is also divided by 
him into two subdivisions by a line following tho south boundary 
of I'e'nnsylvania and New Jersey— these two subdivisions biing 
cjilled, respectively, the North Atlnntic and South _ Atlantic 
divisions. On the east, the West' rn or Cordilleran division is 
marked by the eastern boundaries of New Mexico, Colorado, 
Wyoming and MontJina. 

The following table shows the area of each of these divisions in Pol-ti^jd 
square miles and in percentage of the entire area of the United divi."■i<'I«!*- 
Statos:— 

Area. Percentage of total area. 

North Atlantic 16S,7li5 5.6 

Simth .Atlantic (includ- 
ing Delaware Bay}... 253,15.5 9.4 

Northern Central 7&5.8.-5 25.3 

Southern Central fd4,550 2(1.3 

■Western 1.103.275 39.4 

Total 3,025.(300 loo.O 

[In the Western Division, as here limited, Mr. Gannett includes 
an area of .^.741) square miles of "unorganized territory." lying 
north of Texas and west of the Indian Territory.] 

The adoption of this scheme of subdivision of the country does 
not thjc less render desirable and convenient for various purjioses 
a different nomenclature for certain regions, based more exclu- 
sively on goographicil po^^ition. Thus the States bordering on 
the Gulf of Mexico will naturally often be spoken of as the Gulf 
States: the region of the Great Lakes will be so designated, and 
this again subdivid.d into the Upper and Lower Luke Kegions; 
while ciich great river will give a name to its own adjacent region, 
as the Ohio Valley, the Upper and Lower Mississippi Valley, the 
Upper Missouri, etc. 

Appended is a statotucnt of the flames of the political divi- 
sions included in onch subdivision of the United States, as sug- 
gested by Mr. Gannett; 

Division. Subdivision. States Within .Subdivision. 



Atlantic. 



Central. 



W'cstem. 



North .\tlantic. 



South Atlantic. 



Northern Central. 



Southern Central. 



Maine. New Hampshire, 
V « r m o n t. Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island. Connecticut, 
Now York. Ne w Jersey, 
Pennsylvania. 

Delaware, Maryland. Vir- 
ginia. West Viginia. North 
Carolina, South Carolir*** 
Georgia, Florida. 

Ohio, Indiaim, I 1 1 - jo;.i 
Michigan. Wisconsin Minne 
sota. North Dakota. South 
Dakota, I o w a. Nebraska. 
Kansas, Missouri. 

Kentucky, Tennessee. Ala- 
bama, Mississippi. Arkansas, 
Indian Territory, Louisiana, 
T'exas. 

Montana. Idaho, Wyoming, 
Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, 
Nevada, .Arizona. Washing- 
ton, Oregon, California. 



UNITED STATES 



[climate. 



The tabular statement following gives for the States and Terri- 
tories a resume of their areas, population in 1880 and 1890, pop- 
ulation per square mile at the latter date, and the increase per 
cent, during the decade 1881-90. The Territories are given in 
italics in the table. 

POLITICAL AND NATURAL DIVISIONS. 

Arkas and Population— Census of 1890. 





<D iJcJ 


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* This includes " Unorganized Territory." t Estimate. 

CLIMATE. 

In endeavoring to set forth rhe principal fentures of the climate 
of the United States, it will be a^sumt^'d that the reader has made 
himself acquainted with the topography of the country, as briefly 
indicated in the preceding pages. The great influence which 
certain of these features have on the distribution of the winds, the 
rainfall, iind the temperature will be sufficiently apparent from 
that which follows. 

The United States extends from the tropics north across the 
temperate zone, and from sea-level to an elevation of o\'er 14.000 
feet— an elevation which carries with it an arctic clim.-ite. The 
mean annual temperature ranges over more than 40'^ F.. while 
the extremes of recorded temperature run from db° below zero 



up to a niaxinmm above 115°; The mean temperature of the hottest 
month of the year, July, ranges from below 60° to above 90°, 
while the nu'un temperature of the coldest month ranges from 
zero Ut more th;in 05°, Were the country a plain, the mean 
tenipeniture of ihe year would be almost purely a question of 
latitude; a difference of elevation, however, especially when it 
takes the form of a mountain range, causes a deflection .southward 
of tho isothermals. an abrupt rise of about 300 feet of elevation 
implying a decrease of annual temperature of one degree. 
Thus we find that the Appahichian system causes a very marked 
defleciinn to the southnanl of the isotherraals. On the plains, how- 
ever, where the upward slope is very gradual, it is to bennted that the 
ele\';ition causes little or no deflection southward of the lines of 
temper.ituie, the plains and plateaus generally ha\ mg a mean 
annual temperature nearly or quite as high aspnints in the s;ime 
latitude in the Mi.-sissippi valley or on the Atlantic cua^t. The 
temperature of the great western plains and plateaus is, however, 
modified locally to a marked extent by the exposure to west and 
northwest winds, A\ hieh havean unbroken sweep in some plnces 
for hundreds I'f miles, acquiring tremendous force. Attention 
should bo calledh. re to the well-known fact that the climate of 
central Montana, including mo>t <^'f thesettlements on the upper 
^lissouri. is abnormally warm. It lies at a comparatively low 
elevation, being only 3.000 to 4.000 feet above searievel. and is 
sheltered from the fierce westerly winds by the Missduri range, 
while the northerly winds, to which it is exposed, come from the 
moisture plains of the Saskatchewan. 

The two maps shiiwing the mean temperature of the warmest 
month, July, and the mean temperature ot the coldest month, 
January, as given in the Unit' d States Census for 188U, Vol. 1— il- 
lustrate, though only to a limited extent, the range of tempera- 
ture in different sections of the country. 'Ihe former shows a 
comparatively limited number of grades, running from 60° to 90°, 
the lines following approximately the parallelsof latitude, except 
where deflected by mountain masses. The influence ot the coast 
in avLTaging the climate ia distinctly perceptible on this map. 
There is apparently a northward movement of the temperature 
lines in the Cordilleran region, showing that in the summer the 
temperature is abnormally high in this arid section. These 
characteristics are illustrated conversely by the January nmp, 
which aLso shows the influence of the sea and other large bodies 
of water, while in the Cordilleran region the temperature lines are 
borne southward by the aridity and consequently extreme char- 
acter of the climate. The fourth of these temperature maps, 
showing a generalization from the highest recorded readings of the 
thermoLueter. coui'led with the fifth map. which shows a similar 
generalization with regard to the minimum temperature, illus- 
trates the extreme range of the thermometer in different parts of 
the country. In the former we see u belt running along the sea- 
coasf from Maine (o Texas, where the thermometer never rises 
abtive 100°. while within it is a region, stretching from New York 
S(uUhward along the Atlantic plain and the lower Mississippi 
valley, where the maximum reaches 105°. thus illustrating in the 
clearest nmnner the effect of the sea in averaging the tempera- 
ture. Thosiime tiling is illustrated, though not so markedly, upon 
the map of minimum temperatures. 

The fourth map shows also another peculiar characteristic, viz. 
the fact that as we r-ass up the slope of the plains the maximum 
temperature increases, not on a parallel, as in the case of the 
mean annual temperature, but approximately on a contour or oa 
a meridian, being apparently proportional to the aridity of the 
atmosphere and the amount of rainfall. This characteristic is, to 
a certain extent, disguised in the heart of the Cordilleran region 
by reason of the great diver.-ity of surface which is encountered 
there, but in general it holds good throughout. _ 

The map showing minimum temperatures is not so clear on 
these points. Its lines follow parallels more nearly ; but there is 
a marked deflection toward th" southwest as we pass westward 
from the Mississiprd valley. The characteristics of this map are 
still further concealed by the effect of the details of topography 
in theCordilleran region. A marked change in temperature, as 
well ,'is in rainfall, takes place at the crest line of the Sierra 
Nevada and the Cascade range. This change is not particu- 
l;irlyapp:irent in the mean annual temperature, but on the map 
showinij the temperature of July and January it is quite apparent, 
being shown by tlie slight difference Itetween these maps. At the 
bay of San Francisco the difference between the mean tempera- 
ture of July and that of January is but 10°. This effect is still 
more marked in the last two maps, where, in the Mississippi val- 
ley, the range between maximum and minimum averages 110°, 
and in theCordilleran region 12^°. On the Pacific coast it de- 
creases to only 60°. showing that this section of the country enjoys 
by far the most uniformclinmteas regards temperature. 

The m:iterial for these temperature and rainfall maps was 
drawn main'y from "Temperature Tables" and "Rainfall Tables" 
prepaiedby Professor Charles A. Sehott, and published by the 
Smithsonian Institution. The map of mean annual temperature 
was compiled, very largely. directly from Mr. Schott's admirable 
chart in the first of the above-mentioned volumes. The rainfall 
maps were prepared previous to the publication of the last edition 
of the Smithsonian "Rainfall Tables," and. as much new material 
had been collected in addition to that published in the first 
edition, the maps were plotted from original sources. 

No less than 98 per cent, of the total population lives between 
40°and "11° F. of mean annual temperature, leaving a very small 
proportion to be distributed among the other sections. Of these 
groups, those having a temperature above 55° contain the entire 
cotton region ; those above 70°. the sugar and rice regions; while 
between 50° and 6"° is comprised most of the tobacco region. The 
prairie region of the Mississippi valley lies almost entirely below 
55°. while the great wheat region of Minnesota and Dakota is 
mainly below 40° of mean annual temperature. 



CLI.M.VTK.] 



UNITED STATES 



The iiottest part of the coun*ry is. naturally, the .southern end 
of Florida, while southmi Tcxui- and southwestern Arizona oume 
m-xt in degree of tempi-rature. 

A rough computation show.^ that the mean annual tempera- 
ture uf the country is about 53° F.. to wbieh thi* location of the 
populiition almost precisely corresponds, differing from it by only 
u fraction of a deiiree. 

W'v give below a table prepared by selection from tho volumi- 
nou-i loi-'ords of the recent work on American tcnuHralure, show- 
ing rib' [uean anmuil temperuture of tbe atmosphere at a k'ivcn 
point lu each of the forty-nine States and Territories of the Union. 
Thi' pi ice is selected as either the capital or some lending city or 
town vvliore observations have been most ciuilinuously kept: 



Alabama 

Aliuska... 

.'Vri/.ona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colomdo 

Connecticut 

Ihikuta. 

I>iduwiirc 

Dist. of Columbia 

Florida 

tieorgia 

Idiiho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indiun Territory. 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana-. 

Maine 

Marylitnd 

Mii-siwhuHotts 

Michigun 

Minnesota. 


ft 
•< 


mmmumm ' 


t2 

1 




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Mean 
annual 
temper- 
ature. 


s i i lii 5-s 5 5.S.E n T^< « s « s s"! p. 

i i =5; i : ; S.:i.: : o: g-;^: . I . -■ 


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Mean 
annu a 1 
toinpor- 

aturc. 



Isothermal 
lines. 



The position of the isothermal lines in the T'nited .States may 
now be noticed ; and in this connection the inlluence of the tojio-;- 
raphy of the country becomes at once extremely uppurent. The 
isothennal lines of the mean annual temperature have quite a 
marked regularity from the Atlantic coast we>t to the foot of the 
Kocky .Mountains, being in general only slightlv modified in their 
direction, which is nearly east and west. This indication of a 
change of temperature, essentially dependent on that of Intitudo. 
is in striking contmst with the condition of things on the I*ncific 
coa-t. as will be seen farther on. But us soon as the Cnrdillenin 
region is reached,, the isothermal lines iire bent jiwny tmm their 
eti-t und west course, and become irregular and otten concentric 
in (heir pas^iage across the various ni'Xintain mnges. 

II}-" the ehantcter of these isothermal lines, three climatic divi- 
sion-; '"f the I'nited States are suggested: 1. The F.ostcrn Region, 
ineliidipg all the territory lying <ast of the foot of the Rocky 
Mountain**; 2. The Plateau and Mountain Uegion of the Cor- 
dilleras; ;>. The S'urrow belt on the Pacific coast, west of tho 
Cos'-ade an<l Sitrra Nevada Ranges. 

The E:istern division is. of course, by far the most important 
and best known in its details, since it is that region where the 
statistics KO back the farthest, and where the population and 
wealth are concentrated. Its climatic conditions will, therefore, first 
be cnsidered. As the topographical features of this division are 
simple, and do not anywhere interpose any very decided or not 
ea,'*ily overcome barrier to the movement of the people, so tho 
climate partakes of asimilar character, the passage from one type 
to another beink' gradual and decidedly uniform, although rapid. 

The isoth'^rmal lines of mean annual temperature of -U^' and 72^, 
include nejirly the entire area of the United Statcp. The corre- 
sponding degrees of latitude are about 45*^ and 29^, so that tho 
average change of temperatiire with the latitufle is u trifle over 
l^.tl for each degree ot latitude. The imi>ortanee of this rapid 
chiinge of temperature with the latitude, with reference' to the 
intellectual and commercial development of the country is^ ob- 
viou-i, and has been already pointed out by eminent cliina- 
tologists. 

The isothermal of 72° passes through the center of Florida; then. 
entering Texas, is suddenly deflected southward, running parallel 
with the isothennals of 68° and &i° to the boundary line of 
Mciico. The iscbennal of 76^ crosses the extreme south end of 



Florida, almost on tho parallel of 25°. Tho isothermal of OS^ 
enters Florida just below the parallel of 31°. and crossing tho 
state in an alnio,--! direct ea.^l and \*est line, passes ihrougli tho 
southern part ot Alabama. Mississippi, and Louisiatia. and into 
Texas, to the meridian of 10:.'°. where it is suddenly dt fleeted south- 
ward to the buundary line <.f Mexico. The isutlu-inial i.fo4° enters 
the United Slates iin the .SmUIi Carolina coast. It passe.- in a wt st- 
erly direcli<'n very nearly on the parallel t.f ;.3° as far ^\e.-l us tho 
meridian of li»°. when it is deflooled souihward. like the other 
isotlurnmls. by the t;radually increasing ilevali.'U of the Plat* an 
Region. The isothermal of tiU° is, in its general course, parallel 
with that of t>4° except that the deflection to the soulli betwetn 
the meridians of S'.y^ and 87° is greater, owing to the iiifiueiice of 
the lofty southern extremity of the Appalachians. It traverses 
North Carolina. Suutli Carolina. .Mabauia ; passo into the southern 
part of Tenne.<.>oe; is deflected into Mississipi i: then enters Ten- 
ne.sseee again, passing across .-Vikansas and the Indian Territory 
into New Mexictt. when it is dtfleeted lowanl ;he south, making 
two loops a.s it runs nearly coincident with the meridian of ltd 
to the parallel of 31° in Texas, when it again liends to ihe west, 
a nd.a fter a sctulh west course, is deflected towaid l he northwest- 1 he 
isothermal of ati° enters tho I'nitt d States on the Maryland c<mst. 
Its general direction to the meridian nf S7'-' is southwest. Here, 
in central Alal>ama. it is deflected to the nor'heast f'dlowing thia 
general direction to the parallel of .'1H° in Kentucky, when it bends 
again tu tho west ami runs in an almost direct westerly course to 
the meridian of li)l°, where it is deflectecl to the situih. passing 
tlirough New Mexico into Texas, where it suddenly bends back to 
the north, and. after making a long loop in New Mexico, pusses in 
a nortliwe.vterly ciuu>c across Arizotui. The i>othcimaI of 52°» 
west ol the Appalachians runs almost coincidently with the Ohio 
river as far as Cincinnati, then in an uinUilatiiig course passes in 
a nearly westerly direction through Indiana, Illinois. Northern 
Missouri, and near the northern boundary of Kansas to tho 
eastern border of ('(dorado, where it is deflected to the s(.ulh. and 
runs in a direction nearly south by west for a distanci- of fully five 
hundred miles along tho eastern base of the Kocky Mountains. 
A hirgc area is included between the isothermals ol 44"^; and.S'i** 
It ci'inpriscs: New England, o.vcept the larger part of Maine. New 
llamp>hire and Vermont; tlie southern and central porti<tiis of 
New York; Pennsylvania; nearly all "hio; the noithern two- 
thirds of Indiana and Illinois; the southern half of JNlichigan and 
Wisconsin; nearly all of Iowa; the southeastern cornerol Min- 
nesota; nearly the whole of Nebraska; and the southern third of 
Dakota. The isothermal uf 4(1° enters the United States on tho 
eastern border of Maine, and. passing through the center of the 
state, traverses the northern end of New Ilanii)shirc and Ver- 
mont. It then passes out of the United States, hut enters the 
country again at llio western end of Lake Superior, crossing tho 
central part of Minnesota, bending to the south on the meridian 
of i<7°. and making a large loop in Eastern Dakota, then turiiing 
to the northwest, and again passing out of the United StJiies at 
the meridian of 107°. 

West of tho meridian of Wi°, within the second climntic division 
or the Cordillcran region, the course of the is()thermal is hugely 
determined by the position of the several mountain ranges 
embraced in that area of coini>licated topography to wliith tho 
name of Cordilleras is given. These ranges, unlike the Aipalu- 
claians, are lofty enough to pniduce a decided influence iii>on the 
climate, although nowhere reaching what may be called the region 
of perpetual sikpw. This defiei<'ncy <d lasting accuintilati- n? of 
snow, however, is in very cniisiderablc p -rt due to the smatlness 
of The precipitation. ^If this were as great in the Rocky ^'oun- 
lains as it is in the Sierra Nevada, theformcrrangcswouM.no 
doubt, be covered to a large extent witli permanent snow fields 
anil glaciers descending Irom them, "hservations of mean tem- 
perature, however, on the highiT ranges are extremely d( ficient, 
so that only a few generalizatinns can be given with regaid to the 
position of the isothermals in that portion of the territory of tho 
United States. 

The isothermal "f 44° follows a course in the Cordilleran region 
which embraces wiihiii n uroat loop to tho south, the entire higher 
portion of the Roek.\ Movinlains. as far south as parallel 34°. The 
tops of tlie Sierra Nrvada. hlue Mountains, and Cascade Rai.ges 
are also iucludeil within th'* loop of the 44°. The Central portioa 
of the Cascade Range, and the Koiky Mountains in the south- 
western (Mtrner of v oionidt', have a mean annual temptraturc of 
40°. The hiuhest i>art of the Rocky Mcmntains is indicated as 
having a mean ttmperature of less than 3ti°. Accurate and I'^ng 
continued ohservaiions in this regitm would, however, furnish an 
extremely complicaieil systi m of isothermal curves, since the 
ranges are numerous, and many of thcni hiu'h. 

As the land assumes a more deci(UMUy plateau character in 
Arizona, Utah and Nevada, tho moan annual temperature rises in 
this portion of the country. In Nevada, the isotliermal of 72° ex- 
tends as far niH'th as the parallel of 3(t°, and the isothermal of 
52° reaches to the Trinity Mountains in parallel 40°. In ibis 
Cordilleran region, we find that a great change may be made in 
the latitude with but a very modera'c one in the mean annual 
temperature, as shown by the parallelism of tlir isMtherinals with 
the eoast line. The temperature is higher an<l nmre uniform along 
the Pacific coast than il is on the Atlantii- coast of the United 
States. The isotherrnal of liO^ runs nearly parallel with the coast, 
and not far from it from the 35th parallel nearly to the 3.Sth. Tho 
isothermal I'f .52' fnllows the coast from San Francisco as far north 
as tho parallel of 46°. 

The isothi-rmals for the summer niontlis— .Tune. July, and gumnj..^ 
August— show greater irregularity on Mr. Sclioit's chart thin isotheruiuls- 
thnsi'of the year. This holds true cspeciallv in the eastern region 
of the country. The summer isothermals all bend to the north in a 
very characteristic manner, owing in great measure to tho southerly 
winds, which are heated by the Gulf of Mexico. Tho summer 



UNITED STAT EH 



[climate. 



Wirrf » 



isotheriiml <>f SO' bounds on the north an i.rt-siular npa, iiidud- 

i ,g Flo id:,, thesouthern part of tieorgia. Alabaum and ■ ' ■^^'-';"P'; 

Louisii.na. the soulheust. rn corner o£ Arkan-a-; th- MmlheaMer 

hal u£ T,-xas; and a t..ng«e of la.id iii New .u.xico W itnni 

this arathc mean summer temperature ranges. trom b(l to W . 

ThJonlhwestern halt of An.,n.. and l«"*';%'\^"J?,"^,^;y:"' 

ce .t.al California have a like summer temperature «* £' " >fl }^ 

88° A str.p including the Kreater part of North and .--.mlh ( aro- 

lin,, Artions of Georgia, Alaba.na. A tssissipp., ^^■^^,';f'^%XZ' 

li -li Missouri, Arkansas. Kansas, the Indian lerrueiy, lexas. 

iJ';^ .Mexico:' Colorado, Utah. Arizona, .md ^'- M-Ti'-iifneYr 

twecn the mean summer isothermals of ib° and bii 1 he »e't near 

the Ohio? extending north as f:;,; "^'h^- «'■'■*« ^akes ad ^^^^^^ 

along the Appalachian table-land into lennes-ee. '^Vf?'s>; •'?■,• '^^- 

baml- and Georgia, and west through , °'>'f f-''' J' "^"i;- X^f^' 

Donions of Wisconsin. .Minnesota. Dak"ta. and Montana. 

?teb ska.and northern Kansas..lies betw.-en the summer iso he - 

i.ials of «S° and 76°. On the Pacific co:.st the summer ifotherma s 

ppro.ch more nearly to 'h- .u ...n .u.nunl >/"thernml» in the, 

chi.ae.ter and position thai, do those on 'be Atbm.c coast f the 

United States. The region of the United Mates lying fx'i'h ot 

the States named above has a mean summer temperature lang-ng 

^'■'Thetsothefmals for the winter months-Deeember, January a^^^^ 

. F.bruary-in the eastern region of the ^-nned bta es aie more 

re«Ml«r than the summer curves, thus approaching in this respect 

th- character of the mean annual isothermals. Ihe winter 

ioth»rmal of S2° coincides almost exactly wi'h /he mean aimmd 

?o ermJl of liH°. It runs parallel.with. and at a lUtle dis an^^^^ 

(,oui. the Gulf of Mexico. The winter curve of 48 «.»'/'-sP'» » 

vov closely with that of 64° for. the year and the w'^tf' ' "^^"^^ 

of 44= with the mean annual isothermal of bO°. Ih- winter 

fsothermal of 32° enters the United States at the southern end ot 

M s"aehusetts. and passes in a southwesterly course ocioss Long 

lil nd. just south ot- New York City, t^"'".?!? N^^^^'^^'^^^'y'if,^ 

across the northern end of Maryland, whore it is deHected to ti e 

eoiith and makes a long loop around the Appalachmns ; then neai 

th Oiifo tl"ough Indiana. Illinois, Mi- ?g»"- ."°^ '^'S%'?^" 

New Mexico, where at the meridian ot 10o°. it is deflected to the 

Touthwest and passes around the Rocky Mo.untams and through 

Ihe center of the (ireat Basin. On .the Pacific coast, the ^mte"- 

isothermals also eloselv coincides with the mean annual isothei- 

l^ils For example, the winter isothermal of o2° corresponds in 

ehiraeterand position with the annual curve ot bt 

The peculiarities of the North-American climate which most 
strongly impress themselves on newly arrived visitors, and which 
are no so apparent in general ^'ta.istieal st.atemeii s as they are 
in Nature, may be best set forth and discussed after tho moie 
essential fa"s regarding the other principal climatic elements 

nndr^?oS™^ti to be next in order to. ^tate t^ ..-inei^l 
facts regarding the distribution of the winds in the Uniti d btates. 
L c a knowb^ige of these will be essential ^ «" ,.;V'; 't^f '^'V Z 
of the important subject of tho amount and distribution of the 

•' The prevailing winds of the United States, as of all countries 
lying iSh middi; latitudes, are westerly. At .the 46 ill parallel 
as an average position, and on the mean annual isothermal of 56°. 
the eVidenees of this prevale.nce and constancy are overwhelming 
Or Gibbons li^is noticed, with great care at San Francisco the 
cours^ of the higher strata of clouds-the cirrus, and the very high 
^trntu-'-wh-ie they were visible, and has. found them to come 
uniformly from some westerly point. During three years of very 
carefiregistry directed to this particulaj. point in western ^ew 
York, but thr-e instances of a contrary direction were observed 
During storms the lower clouds are from various pomts. an I tlie 
wind is quite variable during the greater storms; two st™ a of 
different movement oftn lying beneath that from the west, yet 
the - tratum from a wesf-rly point usually deposits the n.in, and 
^h-n ifceases the rainfall ceases, though tho h.wer strata may 
continue to run on the wind twenty-four hours, or f"'", .ong"-,, ^ 
Blow the ;«th parallel and on the Gulf coast qnl.N , do the 
Bhowersof summer take a different movement, showing that the 
stratum occupied by the cumulus of average heigh doe, not there 
move from the west, but from the east or south.east-an inflection 
of the trade-wind mingling with a local coast wind. 

The following t'lble, arranged from data furnished by the bignal 
Service Bureau, gives an id-a of the direction of the wind in 
various parts of the country: 

ST ATEMENT sh;udn(i linw mnvy times tlifmnd wnt observed 
Unmna frnm the eiplit prineipnl pmvis at the conwss rlurmt, 
eaeh season of the year ending June 86. 188 i. Vowpored from 
observations taken nt the several stations of obeerrutMns at I 
a. m., 2 p. m. and 9 p. m. [local time). 



Station. 







C 




Wind. 


6D 

.5 
a 

CO 


3 


a 

3 
< 



Bidmarck, Dak. 



N. 


.5S 


.32 


S3 


42 


N.W. 


^e. 


,M 


76 


Vo 


W. 


:'.\ 


27 


34 


1.=! 


S. W. 


18 


12 


IV 


16 


s. 


16 


HI 


22 


U 


S. E. 


36 


66 


37 


38 


E. 


3". 


34 


I.T 


3h 


N. E. 


» 


17 


18 


13 


Calm. 


11 


9 


27 


21 


Blank. 


II 


6 


6 


(1 



Station. 



Denver, Colo. 



Los .\ngeles, Cal. 



Saint Louis, Mo. 



New York.N. Y — 



Boston, Mass. 



Au^sta, Ga. 



Chicago, 111. 



Charleston, S.C. 



New Orleans. La. 







u 


C 


Win . 


to 


s 


a 












crj 


rXi 


< 



5 S -e .5 



r N. 


■?,h 


.=>o 


46 


N.W. 


36 


42 


37 


W. 


:■;,^ 


lo 


6 


S W. 


'..4 


14 


12 


s. 


64 


66 


111 


S.E. 


33 


34 


20 


E. 


lO 


29 


12 


N. E. 


;'.3 


28 


26 


Ca'in. 


1 


4 


3 


I Blank. 





6 


U 



f 


N. 


31 


.■> 


32 




N.W. 


n 


b 


12 




W. 


64 


M 


b9 




S. w. 


81 


'(4 


4b 


\ 


s 


18 


19 


9 


S.E. 


16 


19 


8 




E. 


16 


11 


i; 




N. E. 


31 


12 


48 




Calm. 


3 


•ii 


42 




Blank. 


U 


U 


6 



N. 
N. W. 

W. 
S. W. 

S. 
S.E. 

E. 
N. E. 
Calm. 
Blank. 





N. 


14 


13 


14 




N.W. 


69 


.W 


l2 




W. 


36 


33 


38 




s. w. 


4.i 


71 


66 




s. 


17 


37 


i8 


i 


S. E. 


,36 


23 


27 




E. 


17 


11 


16 




N. E. 


36 


3.T 


2.T 




Calm. 


6 


3 


3 


L 


Blank. 


U 


U 






N. 


19 


24 


7 


N. VV. 


4.^ 


28 


43 


W. 


48 


.■iS 


77 


S. W. 


62 


58 


56 


S. 


A5 


18 


33 


S.E. 


33 


22 


22 


E. 


26 


.37 


19 


N. E. 


13 


26 


16 




11 


17 


12 


Blank. 





(1 






N. 


•14 


8 


3 


N. W. 


16 


22 


21 


W. 


14 


Itj 


5 


S. W. 


?3 


44 


25 


s. 


29 


27 


12 


S.E. 


31 


,S2 


32 


E. 


14 


16 


31 


N. E. 


?,7 


45 


64 


Calm. 


168 


46 


86 


I Blank. 


U 


U 


U 



N. 
N. W. 

W. 
S. W. 

s. 

S. B. 

E. 
N. E. 
Calm. 
Blank. 

N. 

N.W. 

W. 

s. w. 

s. 

S. E. 

E. 
N. E. 
Calm. 
Blank. 



32 .'.O 
11 I 4 
I I' 



26 
:io 
2< 

.16 

93 
13 
15 
23 

II 

u 

64 
17 
42 

if) 
15 
29 
.i9 
12 


31 
44 
30 
18 
91 
27 
14 
15 

3 



18 I 
54 
46 
43 
16 
13 
13 
53 
17 


19 
62 
58 
55 
12 
14 
15 

n 

27 


13 
28 
2t) 
17 
24 
16 

4 
24 
121 



17 
31 
61 
.60 
37 
20 
15 
16 
16 


34 
20 
25 
67 
10 
16 
41 
55 
5 




r N. 


35 


IS 


.53 


,35 


N W. 


13 


16 


24 


17 


W. 


5 


38 


7 


11 


S. W. 


21 


.54 


8 


22 


s. 


.59 


29 


9 


30 


S E. 


55 


-:6 


48 


65 


E. 


,55 


48 


66 


48 


N. E. 


2i 


2.5 


49 


39 


Calm. 


5 


2 


y 


6 


Blank. 








II 






UNITED S T A 'i' E S 



CMMATK.] 

Till' wui.U uloiiK tlio wlioleoxtint lif the Atlniitic Cimst rcsum 
ti ive a luMik'-il reseiubliuu-.- in ila'ir iiniiortant t.iitiin-. uotwun- 
FtiinJiiiK ttio greal ditVeieiR'e in luliiudu. W csiirly winds pre- 
doniiniitc during thofutiro your; but thoy arc ehiclly fouthwest- 
frly in suinniiT. nnd northwesterly in winter. ,,,,..■ ■ 
la the distrioi bftwoen the Aiiiwliii-biims ami the Mississippi, 
westerly and southwesterly winds are prevalent both in winteruiul 
suuiinor. I >n tho other hand, over a larne tcrriioiy m the .-outn- 
we-leni portion of tli6 I'uited States. coveriuK an aroa.d about 
one third of the e.>nntrv. and incUidinir Nobiiiska, Kansas, east- 
ern Wvoming and I'olorndo. .-^rUansas, Texas. Utah. .New JIo-\i«o 
an.l .\riioiia. the summer winds are from the south, while tno 
winds of winter are north and northwest. In iiorthorn MKhiBaii, 
Wiseonsin, and Minnesota, this reversal of the wmtor winds is 
less marked In New Mexieo and among the Rocky Mountains 
Kencrallv. the winds are of the most extremely irregular ehiirao- 
ter. .\t"the pa-ses of th> Sierra Nevada, and at all entrances 
from the coast of the Pacific to the interior, and distriets and 
d'serts. there are violent and ei.ntinuons westerl.v winds. Un the 
coasiofCalifornis. the inward draft of air produced by interior 
nirefaetion is decidedly developed. Capt. Wilkes has desistnated 
this as the loealitv of the "Me.xieau .Monsoon." blowing niternatcly 
uiianddowu thisooast.ov northwest and southoa.st. Ih.Mlura- 
tion of the northern monsoon is from Deeemb t to M ay ; the cur- 
rents of air arc from the northwest. an<l nearly parallel with the 
c<Mist. During its prevalence, fine weather is experienced. Iroiii 
Mavto September the currents of air arc f nun the south and 
southwest. These are the stormy months, attended with preat 
explosions of oleetricity. and with copious and constant precipita- 
tion. This interior rarefaction, above mentioned, is suihcieiu to 
brin'.' a northwest wind on the coast from the 42iid to the Aith 
pir.illol. and a south or southwest wind for a long distance bel.ivr 
the entrance to the (lulf of California— lines which, if projected 
to the interior, would cross nearly at right angles over the central 
areas of the dry interior. On the other side of the eonlinent the 
southeast Mion.soon of Texas blows directly towanl the northwest 
wind of faliforniii— all proving how great and important this 
Bgency of interior rarefaction is in producius the surface winds 
of the latitudes below the well-determined belt of westerly winds. 
I'o sum up what has b-en said in regard to the winds of the 
U lited Srates. the following may be added: ,. . , ... ^, 

1. The influence of the trades is but very slightly felt in the 
cxTenie southeasterly portion of the country. 
l. The prevaili.ng winds elsewhere are. in general, westerly. 
A t)u the ,\tlantie coast, east of the Appalachians, nirthwest- 
erly winds prevail in winter; southwefterly in summer. 

4. In the region botweeii the Mississippi and tlio .\ppnlaehians. 
eoMthwe.-t and west winds prevail both in winter ami sinnuier. 

5 Over a wide area, extending from southeastern I alilornia 
to .Missouri, and along the base of the Rocky Moaniams troin 
New .Mexico to southern Dakota, the winds of summer are nearly 
the reverse of those of winter, being south, soulheastcrly or 
southwesterly, with a great predominance of southerly; but north 
and northwest in winter. , i i 

I.. On the Pacific coast, the prevailing and normal westerly 
direction is maintained through the year, intensified in summer 
by the superadded monsoon influence of the heated plateau region 
to the east. . ^ .... .. 

7. Through the Plateau or intcnor Cordilleran region, the sur- 
face winds are variable and irregular in character, but the high-r 
currents are in the normal westcrb direction. 

S The region of the Lower Colorado is one m which southerly 
winds gri'atly predominate in summer, but where iii winter there 
is not so complete a reversal of the summer wind as there is in the 
area speeiliej under 5. . , , •■ • f ii 

The prosperity of a country depemls largely upon its ramtall. 
a«. to a very great extent, the primary industry, that upon which 
all others dejamd directly, viz.. agriculture, may bo said to flour- 
ish in a degree .lireetly proportioned to the amount of moisture. 
Of rainfall, this eounirv receives in its diff rent parts a very dit- 
fereni supplv. Throughout the eastern half "f the United .-^tates. 
the rainfall is ample for all purposes of agriculture, while m the 
wesrern half, with the exception of a narrow strip along the 
Paeiliecoist. the supplv is very deficient. With the exception ot 
the Cordilbran region, the rainfall is nearly all derived from the 
Gulf of Meiie.. and the Atlanticoccan. Of the two. the principal 
eouree is the I'lulf. The warm, moist currents which accompany 
the Ciilf Stream from the Caribbean sea are not deflected toward 
the cttstwarl in the liulf of Mexieo. as the great oceanic river i,<i. 
but pass northward and eastward over the land m a broiijl belt 
extending from the coast of Texas to the peninsula of Honda. 
Jud/ing from its efteets in the form of rainfall, the central por; 
tion of this current passes over eastern Louisiana and Mississippi 
nnd western Alabama. The natural result of leaving the wnnn 
ocean surface and entering the continent is to cool th'^se air cur- 
rents, and make th m deposit th'ir vnpor. The heaviest deposit is 
along the northern shore of the (Julf. in thi' States of I.ouisiana. 
Mississippi, and Alabama, and the western part of Florida, where 
the rainfall reaches 60 inches per annum. Were there no moun- 
tains or other irregular topogniphi.al features to modify the riiiii- 
fall. this wave would move inland in a northeasterly direction. Iho 

fireciidtaticm decreasing e«.stward. northward.-and westward, the 
ino3 of equal rainfall taking the form of great concentric ellipses. 
This form we see roughly o itlined in ihe western part of the Mis- 
eis-ippi Tall'-v. the rainfall .bcrensing regularly to th- northward 
nnd westward. To the northeastward, howi-ver, these moisture- 
lad'm currents cneoanter th" smithern end of the Appalachian 
chain, and are drivn at once up >o high altitudes, where they are 
forced to disgi,rgo their vapor, giving to this enii of the mountain 
BTstom a heavy rainfall; while farther along the chain, toward 
the northeast, ihe rainfall diminishes, becoming ''ven loss than 
that of the lower country on the cast and west. The portion of 



the nioi-ture-liiden current which passes to the eastward of the 
Appalaehmn chain meets and mingles with nioi.st air currents 
coming directly from the Atlaniic. an.l produces, m the central 
parts of North and South Carolina, an area of abnormally heavy 
rainifidl. A second source of moisture is the Atlantic ocean. 
Ileie the moist air currents from the (iulf Stream produce a lire 
of heavy rainfall along the Atlantic coast, renchmg from Honda 
to the neighborhood ol the bay o( New \ ork.. Ibis strip is quite 
narrow, being conliiied to the coast and its iininodiatc neighbor- 
hood Uaek of that, and over the greater pornoii of ths Atlantic 
plain, the precii.itation is notably less. 1 be eonditioiiB of the 
coast as regards rainfall arc somewhat changed north of the lati- 
tude last niention.d; that is, near tic bay of New \ork. Ihe 
Culf Stream, which has been gradually 1 rending off .shore, is hero 
at a considenible distance from ihecoiist. lieiweeii the coast and 
theUulf Stream has ai.p.ared a polar current Howing souUnycst- 
crly The c<mt.iet between the warm air currents of the (nil t 
Stream ami the cold winds accompanying this polar current un- 
doubtedlv causes the heavy fogs which prevail on the banks of 
Newfoundland an.l St. Ceorge's lianks. exteii.liug. in a greater or 
less degree, to the New Kiigland const. Although there ip a de- 
crease in the riiinfall of this part of the coasi Irom that farther 
south yet it is not particularly marked. Ihe precipitation is. 
however, greatest on the coast, and decreases inland. 

Leaving now the eastern halt of ihe country, let us trace the 
rainfall westward. The lines indicating a smaller degree of rain- 
fall succeed one another at intervals more or less ngular as we 
go west, out "f the course of the great continental wave of inoist- 
lire and up the slope of the plains. The country here is uniform 
an.l'genoiallv level, and there is nothing to interrupt the regular 
decrease in the amount of iirecipitation until we reach the base 
of the Hockv Mountains. From this line westward to the Sierra 
Nevada weYind the conditions of rainfall which are incident to a 
mountain country aecompanicd by a dry atmosphere. Taking 
the Cordilleran region as a whole, with the exception of tint part 
lying west of the Sierra Nevada and Cascad.s. the rainfiill iT.iha- 
bly does not average more than 1(1 or l.'i inches annually. Ihis, 
however, is not ileposited uniformly over the country; there are 
certain conditions under which the rainfall in sonic parts of tins 
region is much greater than in others. Other things being ctiual; the 
higher the latitude and the greater the altitude, the greater w ill be 
the rainfall I'nder this rule the more northeni parts of the Cor- 
dilleran region enjoy a greater rainfall than the southern parts. 
The mountains and high plateaus are better watered than the 
low lands. The best watered parts of this region are the north- 
ern parts of Washington and Idaho, the western part of .Mon- 
tana, northwestern Wvomiiig. which includes the elevated region 
known as the Yellowstone National Park, and the high plateaus 
and ranges (d central Colorado. The most and portions, and 
those which receive the least rainfall, are western Arizona, south- 
ern Nevada, and southeastern California. Although throughout 
this region we have but few and scattered observations of rainf/ill, 
the relative amount can be predicted with a considerable degree of 
ceitaintv by the character of the vegetation, tverywhere arbo- 
rescent vegetation iinidiesa considerable amount of rainfall, and 
accordingly we find the hiub.T plateaus, the mountains, and the 
regions in the hiKher latitudes covered with f.>r.>sts. A second 

zone of rainfall is indieat.d by the buneh 1 gama grasses which 

cofer the plains and most of the mountain valleys. Ihey indi- 
cate a rainfall not in general sufliciiuit for the needs of agriculture. 
A third 7,on.- is indicated by ArWmUin. or "sage brush, as this 
characteristic western shrub is popularly called; while a fourtli 
zone is indicated by the cactus, the yucca, or by an absence of all 
vegetation whatever. . r ., ■ .i, r, i-i 

As hius lax-n suggested heretofore, the rainfall in the ( ordll- 
leran region cast of the Si.-rra Nevada is in general insufficient 
for the needs of agriculture, excepting m a few isohited areas 
where locnl topography induces a rainfall greater than the normal 
one In that section, irrigation is everywhere necessary tor the 
i.rodiiction of cereal crops. Concrally it may be s'tiited that a 
le,s< annual rainfall than 20 inches, or a less rainfall than IJ'/4 
inches during the growing season of ereps-that is. diinng the 
spring and summer— is insnlVicient for their successful cultiva- 
tion ; and where this supply is not furnished naturally, an equiva- 
lent must be supplied by means of irrigation. I his limit is 
reached along a line running approximately on a nieric lan. and 
passing through the middle of Dakota, western Nebraska, west- 
ern Kansas, andcentrnl Texas. In the neighborhood of this line, 
and extending perhaps a degree on each, side of it. is a debiitablo 
grounil where, in some seasons, the rainfall is siilhcient for all 
crops, while in others it is insnflicient. This is Powell's sob- 
humid region. As a rule, wherever irrigation is necessary, the 
possibleextent of agriculture, and in consenucnoo the possildo 
densitv of settlement, are dependent upon the amount of water 
carrie.l in the streams. In most parts of Ihe Cordilleran region, 
there is apparently a far greater aiiKumt of land suitable for cul- 
tivation than can ever be irrigateil. even umler the most eeonoi i- 
ical distribution of water. Concerning this punt, however, wi 
are at present ranch in the dark, the capacity of few .streams biiv- 
ing been measured, even approximately. Under the wa-^iefu' 
system of irrigation at present practiced throughout the \\ est 
(except in some portions of southern Califi>rnial. the limit of set- 
tremenl will very soon he reached, so far as the population is de- 
pcnilent upon agriculture. ,. , - . , i. „.. 

A nnestion which has assumed practicil importance of an almost 
national character is the eff.^-t of the idariting of tre.s and the 
cultivation of the soil upon climate, many high authorities main- 
taining that these causes produce an increase in rainfall, and con- 
seqiientlv that it is possible to n'decun the whole Cordilleran 
region by a judicious system of ciiltivntion and tree platiting. par- 
ticularly of the latter. It is doubtful whether that effect cm he 
produced by this or by any other means within the power of man. 



UNITED STATES 



[climate. 



Such facts as we havo withiu the form of rainfall records in the Cor- 
dilleran rfE^inn do imt sub?^tantiate the theory, the rt'conls showing 
tbat the mintall li;ts not increased iu the retjions covered by uur bor- 
der settlements since their earliest formation. At the same time, 
it seems highly probable that a change has been produced, which, 
ivhile not affecting the climate, has modified decidedly the con- 
ditions of moisture. The etfeots of cultivation upon the soil in 
covering it with vegetation, and especially ^vith trees, has in gen- 
eral been to retain the moisture upon and in the soil, instead of 
allowing it to run lUrectly off into the streams, or to be taken up 
at once by evaporation. In other words, a much larger proportion 
of the rainfall is rendered effective for agricultural purposes. 
This effect is already very markeil throughout Dakota, Kansas, 
and Nebraska, and even to some extt-Ut in Utah and Colorado. 

It retniins to sketch the rninfall of the Pacific coast. Itisin 
ali respects peculiar, and different from that of the rest of the 
country. Therealoug the whole coast, and ex tending eastward as far 
.Ts the Sierra Nevada nod the Casc.ule range, well-defined wet and 
dry seasons— the former corresponding to the eastern winter, the 
latter to the eastern summer. Taking the year through, the rain- 
f;iil is very much heavier in the northi-rn part of this section than 
in tlie 3 juthern. In we-;tern Wa-^himiton Territory, it rains almost 
constantly for six months of tbe year, while even in the wet sea- 
son, the supply of rain in south rii California is scanty. 

An ex[)Ianation of this peculiar climate is to be found in the 
ocean currents and ihe prevailing winds. The winds on the 
west^^rn coast are. as a rule, the "anti-trades," blowing from the 
west and southwest These winds pass, on nearing the coast, over 
the great Japanese current, which north of Oregon, is relatively to 
the land, a warm current, while south of Oregon it is, relatively, 
a cool current. In passing over this portion of the sea, the atmos- 
phere becomes surcharged with moisture.^ In reaching the coast 
the amount of precipitation from this moisture-laden atmosphere 
depends upon the change of temperature wiiich it encounters. 
North of Oregon, the land being, as stated above, colder than the 
sea, there is great precipitation, while south of that state the land 
being the warmest, the precipitation decreases, till in southern 
California, where the difference between the seaand land tem- 
perature is the greatest, it is almost nothing The line of demark- 
ation between the ditt'ereut temperatures varies with the season, 
ranging northward in the summer and southward in the winter, 
thus giving the alternations between the wet and dry seasons so 
peculiar to this coast. The influence of the mountains of the 
Pacific coast, althoui^h not sufficient to account for all the phe- 
nomena of this climati'. still plays a very important part in it. The 
ascent ot the warm currents u[i the mountain sides of course cools 
them very greatly, and causes them to deposit whatever remaining 
moisture they may contain. To illustrate the extent of the action 
of mountain ranges, it may be stated that, although in the valley 
of the iSan Joatiuin the rainfall is very light, yet upon the high 
Sierras it has been found to reachUii inches in a single year. 

The colder months in the United States, including May and Sep- 
tember of the warmer months, precipitate most of the rain and 
snow, which falls in what are called general storms. Most of the 
rain falling before the middle of June in the latitude of Wash- 
ington is in storms of two or three days' duration. A south or 
southeast wind, with hitxh temperature and a palpable sense of 
preparation, usually begins the cbange: east and northeast winds 
follow next tor a day or more, during which most of the rain falls, 
and west or northwest winds blow with unusual strength for two 
days following, restoring the equable and average weather for the 
month. In the Northern States, a greater number of months is 
included iu those of general rains, which may occur in everj' 
month of summer, though they rarely do so. In the liulf States 
the period of summer showers is more extended generally, though 
where the hurricanes of August and September occur, as they do 
in all the Southern States bordering thefiulf and the Atlantic, the 
number of extended rains in the summer is more nearly equal to 
that in New York and New England. In the southwest, at a dis- 
tance from the coasts, they are rare from the close of April to the 
middle of October; in the interior farther west they are equally 
rare, and on the Pacific coast they belong only to the rainy 
months. But on the Pacific tbe rains have little, if any, corre- 
spondence at any season with those east of the Rocky iMountains. 
Some general distinctions should be made at the outset of the 
examination of storms in the temperate latitudes. The hurri- 
canes, typhoons and tornadoes, each of which more generally be- 
long to the tropics, frequently enter these latitudes in their origi- 
nal forms, and subsequently become blended with the forms wliich 
originate here, either by encountering one of these, or by putting 
on such form- by a gradual process of change. The West India 
hurricanes impress their character on a series of successive or 
continuous st'trms along the Uulf Stream in nearly every case of 
their approach to temperate latitudes, and the tracks of these in 
th'3 western Atlantic and along the const present the most fre- 
quent instances of the mingling of storms which were originally 
wholly different, with the widely extended rains above the 35tu 
parallel. 

The general The observations with respect to the general winter storms of 

winrer the United States m:iy be stated as follows: 

?.,urms. 1- The general winter storms of the United States often '*over 

an area of from three to five hundred miles in diameter, which 
area is usually oblong or oval, with its greatest lengh from south- 
west to northeast. 

2. They all move eastward with the westerly winds of the belt 
where they are formed, and in a line with the isothermals of the 
month in which they occur — coming from a point north of west 
at the Mississippi river, and leaving the Atlantic coast in a direc- 
tion north of east. This course conforms in both cases to the 
( lurse of the isothermal?; or. in oth^r words, they do not leave 
tlie measure of heat where they originate to go into colder or 
warmer climates. 



3. Their movement is generally at the rate of movement of the 
air in these latitudes, or nearly twenty miles per hour; but it may 
be much greater, or very little- 

4. They may be initiated at all points of this belt, and at any 
meridian, and they have equalb' no point at which they are more 
likely to become exhausted and tu disappear than any other. 

5. They are more violent at the Atlantic coast and at the Gulf 
Stream than elsewhere, because the contrast ot land and .--ea nir is 
there very great in the coMer seasons, and because the direct line 
of their progress carries them into a belt of high temperature. 
When the contrast is not grejit. as in the warmer mon'hs, there is 
no decided increase ot severity there. 

ti. They are more generally attended by northeast winds than Northeast 
any others during the first half: or, in other words, the rarefied winds, 
area almo>t always induces a draft from that quarter first, and it 
continues over most of the district in which a draft contrary to 
the general movement is created. 

7. None of the winds from other than westerly points are winds 
of propulsion, or proriagated from their apparent point of origin; 
they are all, including a portion from the west, winds ot aspi- 
ration, induced by the agitation, or by the disturbance of equi- 
librium itself. 

8. All the movements and processes are usually carried past 
the mean by the forces set in motion in these storms; the mini- 
mum of heat, moisture, clouds and winds, following the removal 
ol the excess of the first two; and this minimum, though a calm 
and quiescent state, is itself an extreme and not an average con- 
dition in these latitudes. 

Tornadoes have less connection with general storms than hurri- 
canes, though they often exist as the nucleus of a general rain 
inland, and, though belonging to the summer mainly, they are 
sometimes found in storms of midwinter. The term tornado is 
one properly limited to local storms of excessive violence, afflicting 
but a narrow strip of surface a few miles in length, and usually 
while no storms of consequence exists any ^\ here in the vicinity, hut 
sometimes as the nucleus of an extended rain. The leading 
characteristic is intense electrical action, and several lines or 
threads of tornado force are sometimes developed iu a wide 
stratum of air of high temperature with clouds and rain, particu- 
larly if in a cool month, or when the general storm is of much 
more than the usual excess of temperature. These may be ex- 
hausted after traversing a short path, and may reappear, without 
disturbing the general condition and without producing any con- 
formity to their peculiar violence in the whole area covered by 
the rain, as th ' hurricanes of the Atlantic do. 

These hurricanes evidently control the movements of any storm Hurricanes, 
or condition with which they come in contact, superadding to it 
the characteristics of hurricane violence, until this violence be- 
conies exhausted by distance, while tornadoes have no general 
influence whatever. The following extract is taken from the 
report on tornadoes for JSSO, by Mr, John P. Finley: 

"A map prepared to show tin- entire topography of that portion 
of the United States included within the meridians of 89*^ and lOP 
would plainly illustrate an important truth in the tornado prob- 
lem — viz., that there is not another section of our vast domain 
wherein there exists opportunities so unlimited for the unob- 
structed mingling and opposition of warm and cold currents and 
currents highly contrasted in humidity. As an area of low 
barometer (not necessarily a storm area) advances to the Lowes 
Missouri valley warm and cold currents set in toward it from the 
north and south respectively, which, if the low pressure con- 
tinues about stationary for some time, ultimately emanate from 
the warm and moist regions of the Gulf and the cold and compara- 
tively dry regions of the British Possessions. Here lies the key to 
the marked contrasts of temperature and moisture, invariably 
foretelling an atmospheric disturbance of unusual violence, for 
which this region is peculiarly fitted bv Nature, and in apparent 
recognition of which it has received the euphonious titlt'of the 
"battle-ground of tornadoes." It cannot be disputed tbat. so far 
as the history of tornadoes is concerned, the majority havo 
occurred over this region, because of its peculiar topography. 
From the Gulf northward to the central portion of the Lower 
Missouri valley, and from the British Po.^sessions southward to 
the same locality, there is permitted an entirely free movement of 
the air; nothing in the shape of earth or water exists to modify 
its character, except, perhajis, to intensify the contrast of attiib- 
utes. Over Texas, Louisiana. Arkansas, and Indian Territory 
occurs a broad expanse of rolling surface — sometimes abruptly 
hilly, but on the whole presenting a sameness of outline to a 
marked degree. Similarly conditioned are the States of Min- 
nesota. Iowa, Nebraska, and the eastern half of Dakota Territorj-. 
West of the inlst meridian we find a rugged and abrupt country, 
traversed by great mountain chains, which deflect the course and 
modify the temperature and moisture of passing currents. On 
the east side of the S9th meridian, the Great Lakes introduce 
an equally important factor into the modification of passing 
currents." 

As to the duration of the tornadoes observed m the year 18i9, 
he writes: 

"The time of passing any point was variously estimated from 
five seconds to two minutes. "Quicker than thought," was an 
expression often used as conveying the observer's idea of the 
rapidity of destruction. Estimating the average diameter of tho 
cloud at 15(J feet, and its average velocity at a mile in two min- 
utes, we have its mean duration at any one point, about ten and 
a half seconds. There were times in the passage of the cloud when 
it appeared to remain almost stationary, whirling upon its narrow 
base like a top; again it was reported as moving no faster than a 
horse gently galloping, but only for half a mile or so. when it 
would make up for lost time by dashing forward at a rate of .511 or 
(30 miles per hour, and then gradually working down to its accu 
tomed velocity of about 30 miles per hour." 



FORESTS.] 



UNITED STATES 



The storm ol Marth ll-Il. 1HS8. deserves n notice in this cou- 
nectinii— tor, iilth 'Ugli imt a torimiltt, it causeii muoli si.ff rin^. 
Us m(»>t inifr«.-.-tiiit; ffature wa^i the fxtrauntimuy mnnunt of 
8U0W whirh (vU: and as this ftill took place in the nio>t *len?iely 
settled pjirt of the country, and caused a coini'lol*' stoppHirr tor 
several days of all inicrcou-M* between Now York and the adj u-ent 
cities, it was, probably, of all the storms which have ny^-iirnd 
since this country was settled— the one which pive rise to the 
larg.'St amount of conuncnt. The avcraK'' snow tall in central 
Connecticut and over a large part of etist'-rn New York exceeded 
forty inches, and iu pla-'es this was piled up in drifts of from 
fifteen to forty feet in height. The mnxinmin prcoipiratitMi 
reported U'v78 inehe-) was at Middletown, t'onn. This remarkable 
storm was the re-ult ('f a conllict between a cyclone advancing 
from the south, but detleoted to the west on reaching New Eng- 
land, and a cold wave coming from the west* 

THK FOBK.ST3 OF NOKTII AMKRICA. 

The North American continent, or that part of it situated north 
of Mextci>. which will alone be con>iiiored here, Uiay bo cuu- 
venieritly divided, with reference to it-* forest gcctrrnphy, into tlie 
Atlantic and Pacitic regions, by a line fi)llo\ving the eastern base 
of th^^- Kocky iMountaiiis and its outlying eastern ran^'cs frtini the 
Arctic circle to the Kio (Irnnde. '1 he forests which cover these 
two divi^ious of the continent diflf-r as widely, in natural fea- 
turi'S, composition, and distribution as Ilio climate and typog- 
raphy of eastern America diflfer from the c!imate and topogniphy 
of the Pac fie slope. The causes which have pr-Hlao-il ttn" dis- 
similar composition of these two forests nmy l>e sought in the 
climatic conditions of a geological era earlier than our own anil in 
the actual topoirraplncal formation of the continent; they need 
not bo discussed here. 

The forests of the Atlantic and Pacific regions, dissimilar in 
composition in the central part of the coniiiicnt, are united at 
the north by a broad belt of subarctic forests, extending a<'ross 
the continent north of the fiftieth degree of latitude. Oiic-half 
of the species of which this northern for» st is composed extends 
from the Atlantic to the Pacilie: and its general features, al- 
though differing east and west of tiie continental divide, 
in conformity with the climatic conditions peculiir to the Atlantic 
and the Pacitic sides of the continent, still possess considerable uni- 
formity. The fore.sts of the Atlantic and the Pacitic regions arc 
nlsi> united at the south by a narrow strip of the flora peculiar to 
the plateau of northern Alexico. here extending northward into 
the 1"nitcd rr^tat-'S. Certain characteristics species of this flora 
e.Tren<i from the (Jidf of Mcxicr) to the shores of the Pacilic. and 
while the peculiar features of the eastern and the western slopes of 
the interior mountain system of the continent arotill maintained 
here, the Atlantic and Pacific regions of the Mexican forest belt 
po-se-s many general fcitures in common. Typical N"rth Amer- 
ican species, moreover, peculiar to the forest of the Atlantic 
or of the Pacific, minglcupon the Black liills of Dakota, and upon 
the (tua<Ialupe and otlr^fe mountains of western Texas, the ex- 
treme easteru ridges of the Rocky iMountair, range, and the out- 
posts between the Atlantic and the Pacific regions. 

The forests of tht' Atlantic Region may be considered under six 
natural divisions; the Northern Forest, the Northern Pine I5clt, 
the .■^outhern .Maritime Pino Belt, the IVciduous Fore.^t of tlie 
Mississippi Basin, and the Atlantic Plain, the Semi-tropical Forest 
of Florida, and the Mexican Forest of Southern Texas. 

These natural divisions, although composed in part of species 
founrl in other divisions and possessing many general features in 
comiuon. are still for the most part well characterized by pre- 
dominant species or groups of species, making such a separation 
natural and convenient. 

The yorthern Foreit stretches along the northern shores of 
liubrador nearly to the sixtieth (iegree of north latitude, sweeps 
to the south of Hudson bay, nnd then northwestward to within 
the Arctic circle. This Northern Forest extends southward to 
the fiftieth degree of north latitude on the Atlantic coast, and 
nearly to the fifty-fourth degree at the lUOth meridian. It oecnpies 
I'l degrees of latitude upon the Atlantic sea-board and nearly 20 
d'-grees in its greatest extension north and south alorti: tiin east- 
ern base nf the Rocky .Mountains. The region occupied by this 
Northern Forest, except toward its southw*-stcrn limits, enjoys a 
copious rainfall: it i-* divided by innumerable streams anil lakes, 
nnd abounis in swampy areas often of great extent. The nature 
of the surface and the low annual mean temperature check the 
spread of forest growth, and reduce the number of arborcscimt' 
species, of whieh this forest is composed, to eight. Ot these, four 
cross to the Pacific coast. whiU^ the r(imainder, witli a single 
exception, are plac 'd west of the continental divirle bv closely 
aliieil forms of the Pacific forest. The white and the black sprucor 
are characteristic trees of this region: thcv form an open, stunted 
forest upon the low divides of the water-sheds, and reach a higher 
latitiulo than any other arborescent speeioH of the continent: the 
vall -ys and wide bottoms are clothed with broad sheets of poplars, 
dwarf birche.» and willows. The forest of this entire region is 
scattered, open, stunted, nnd of no great (fconomitr value. It em- 
braces, south of the sixtieth degree of north latitude. Iho northern 
extension of the great midcontinental plateau, which will be 
con8i<iered hereafter. 

South of the Northern Forest the A'ow/jern Piue lirh extends 
from the .Atlanttp coa-«t to the ninety-sixth mcrltlinn of longitude; 
cast of the .Appalachian Mountain system it extends south over 
nearly 6 degrees of httjtude. with a long, narrow spur following 
the higher Alleghany ridges for nearly .'i degrees farther south; 
west of the Alleghany Mountains, in the region of the great lakes, 
the piiie forest is replaced south of th" forty third degree of lat- 
itude by the deciduous growth of the Missis>ippi Ihimp. The eec- 



•Sce Winslow Upton, in Am. Met. Jour., May, IsBS. 



ond division of the Atlantic forest may bo characterized by the 
white pine I /'iHW« StmbuH), its most important it nt)l its most 
gencrnlly-ilisti itiuted jpecies. East of tlie Appalachian s.vstem 
this tree often forms extensive forests upon the gravelly drift 
plain of the St. Lawrence basin, or farther south and west appear.H 
111 i.-olaled proves, often of eonsidemblc extent, scattered tlnipugh 
the deciduous forest. Forests of black spruce arc still an impor- 
tant feature lit this rejiion. especially at tde imrth: and wiiliin its 
boundaries the hem!«a-k. the yellow ctdar, the biU'Swooil. the 
black and the white ash, the sugar maple and several species of 
iiireh and tlm find their northern limits, and the center of their 
most important distribution. The hiekoi ies and the oaks, cliarao- 
('■ristic features ef the deciduous forests of all the central portion 
of" the .Atlantic region. rea(di here the nortliorn limits of tin ir dis- 
trihulion. as do tho chestnut, the sassafras, the tulip tree, the 
magnolia (here represented bv a single species) the red cedar, the 
tupelo, the sycaiiir»re. the beech, and other important genera. 

The Soufhrrn Mart'fittir Pint- /?* /(extends from the thirty-sixth Southern 
degree of north laiitu>le nlonn the coast in a narrow belt, varying pine bell 
from one hundred to two hundred miles in width, as far south as 
Car'C .Malabar and Tampa bay; it stretch* s acro.'-s the Florida 
peninsula and along llie coast of the <iulf of Mexico until tho 
alluviiil deposits of tho Mis>i8>ippi arc eneounfi'M d: it r* appears 
west of that river in Louisiana, north and south of the Kcd river, 
and hero gradually mingles with the deciduous forests of the 
."\lississi|)|)i ba.-in in Arkan-as and eastern 'Icxus This belt ia 
well characterized by the almost continuous growth, outside of 
the broad river bottoms and the iinnH<liatc ncrighboihoorl of the 
coast, by the open forest of the longleavid \>'niv fP pahmfriit). 
The live oak. the palmetto, and various j-pecies of pine charac- 
terize the co;^^t forest of this region; throu^di the river bottoms 
anil along the borders of the >hMll{Av ponds, scattered thri>ugh tho 
pino forest, diff'-rent gums, water oaks, hickories and ashes, 
attain noble dimensions. The southern cypress {Toxmlhtm), 
altliongh extending far beyond the limits of this natural division, 
here attains its greatest d<'V(dopnient and value, au(l. next to the 
long loave<l pino. may be considered the characteristic species 
of the uiiiritime pino belt. 

The Deciiluouft ForcHt uf thv MiBSXHsippi Basin and the Atlantic Deciduouf 
Plain occupies, with two uniiuportant exceptions to be considered f<^rest. 
hereafter, the remaindrr ol tho Atlantic region. Through this 
deciduous forest, wht-re pei-nliar geological features have favored 
tho growth of ConijWa-. belts of pine, growing gregariously or 
mixid with oaks and other broad- leaved trees, occur especially 
upon some portions of the .Athintic plain and toward the limits of 
the Southern iMaritime Pine Belt, west of the Mississippi river. 
Tho characteristic features of the forest <if this whole region are 
found, however, in the broad-leaved species of which it is largely 
composed. Oaks, hickories, walnuts, magnolias, and ashes give 
variety and value to this forest; and here, with the exception of a 
few species peculiar to a more northern latitude, the deciduous 
trees of the Atlantic region attain their grent''St (Uvelopment an<i 
value. Upon the slopes of the southern Alleghany mountains and 
in the valley of the lower Bed river, regions of copious rainfall 
and rich soil, the deciduous furcst of the continent attains un- 
surpassed variety and richness. Upon the Alleghany mountaina 
northern and southern species nre ming'ed. or are only separated 
by the altitude of these mountains; rhododendrons, laurels, and 
magnolias hire attaining their maximum development, enliven 
the forests of northern pines and hemlocks whieh clothe the flanks 
of these mountains, or arc scattered through forests of other 
broad-leaved species. The cherry, the tuMp tree, and the chestnut 
bore reach a 8iz<' unkiu)wn in other parts of the country. The 
forest of the Bed river valley is hardh less varied. The nortlicrn 
sp< cies which the elevation of the Alletihany mountains has car- 
ried south nre wanting. l)ut other species i)eculiar to the southern 
Atlantic and Gulf coasts arc here niiirgled with plants of the 
southern deciduous forest. The seven species of Varya 'tho 
hickories) are nowlicre else closely associated. A ureat vniiety of the 
most important oaks grow here side by side: here is the center of 
distribution of the North American hawihoins, which do not else- 
where attain such size and lieauty. 'i'he osnge orange is peculiar 
to ih'S rejiion; the n d cedar, the most wid'ly distributed of 
Ann-ricfln Conifrrtr. the southern and the yellow pine (Piuun 
pnlufitrin and inidini here reiich their best dcvelojiment. Just out- 
side of this region, upon the "bhiff" formation of the lower Mis- 
sissippi valley and of western Louisiana, the stately southern mag- 
nolia, perhaps the most beautiful of the North American trees, 
and th" licech, assume their greatest beauty, and give a peculiar 
charm to this southern forest. 

The western third of the Atlantic region is subjected to very 
different climafic eonditiims from those prevailing in the eastern 
portion of the continent: it consists of an elevated plateau. \\hi<'h 
falls away from the eastern base of the R<i<-ky Mountains, forming 
what is known as the (treat Plains. This great interior region, on 
account of its remoteness from natural reservoirs of moi.-ture, 
receives a meager and uncertain rainfall, sufficient to insure ii 
growth of herbage, but not suflieient to support, outside the nar- 
row bottoms of the infrequent streams, tlie scantiest forests. 
This tr<'eless plateau extends north to the fifty second degree of 
north latitude; it follows southward the trend of tlio Rocky 
Mountains far into Mexico, extending eastward at file point of its 
.gieate^t width, in about liititnde 40° N.. nearly to the ninety- 
seventh meridian. This wh'de region is generally destitute of 
forest The narrow bottoms of the large streams are lined, how- 
ever, with willows, poplars, elms, and hackbcrries— tr<es adapted 
to nourish under such unfavorable conditions. These diminish in 
size and number with the rainfall, and often disappear entirely 
fr'un the banks of even the largest streams towtird the western 
limits of the plnleau. south of the forty fifth degree nf latitude. 
North and east of these central treeless plains n belt of prairio 
extends from the sixtieth degree of north latitude to southern 



UNITED STATEb 



[l--OI!fc;ST8. 






Texas The average wiJth east anJ west of this praine region, 
through much of its extent, is not far from loU miles. Its eastern 
extensi.ui. between the fortieth and forty-tifth degrees of latitude, 
is mufli o'leater. however, here reaching the western shores of lake 
Michig'n, and forming a great recess in the western line of tlie 
hi'avy forest of the Atlantic region with a depth of nearly 600 
miles ihj transition from the heavy forest of the eastern and 
central portions of the Atlantic region to the treeless plateau is 
{:iiidual. The change occurs within tlie inaine regions. Here is 
tlia strip of debatable ground, where a ooiiiinunus struggle between 
tho fonst and the plain taltes place. There is here sufficient pre- 
cipitation of moisture to cause, under normal conditions, a growth 
of open forest; but. so nicely b.alanced is the struggle, that .iny 
interference quielilv turns the scale. Trees planted within this 
prairie belt thrive if protected from fire ard the encroaclimeiit of 
the tough prairie sod, and so extend tlie forest line westward: it 
th'! forest which fringes the ea.nern edge of the prairie is 
de-troyed. it does not soon regain possession of the soil, and the 
prairie is gradually pushed eastward. 

The eastern line of the phiin. where arborescent vegetation is 
confined to the river bottoms, and wliuh divides it troin the 
prairie where trees grow iiaiurally. to smue <;xtent, outside of the 
bottoms, and where they may be made to grow under favorable 
conditions everywhere, is d'-lermined by the rainfall enjoyed by 
thi< part of the continent. The extreme eastern point reached by 
this line is found, upon the fortieth degree of north latitude, near 
the northern boundary of the state of l\ans!is. North of the 
fortieth degree it gradually trends to the west, reaching the 
eastern base of tlie Roeky Mountains in about latitude r>2^ J.his 
northwestern trend of the eastern plain hue may be ascribed to 
tlio comparatively small evaporation which takes place during the 
shorter summer of the north, and to a slight local increase of 
spring and summer rainfall. South of the fortieth degree the 
plain line graduallv trends to the southwest under the influence 
of the (iulf of Mexico, reaching its extreme western point in 
Texas upon the one hundredth meridian. . . „ , . , 

Other causes, however, than insufficient rainfall and a nicely 
balaiced struggle between the forest and the plain have prevent- 
ed the general growth of trees in the prairie region t•a^t of the 
ninety-fifth meridian. The rainfall of this region is sufficient to 
Insure the growth of a heavy forest. The rain falling upon the 
prairies of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa. Illinois, and .Missouri 
equals in amount that enjoyed by the Miehig:!n peninsula and 
the whole region south of lakes Ontario and Erie, while prairies 
e.xi-t within ihe region of the heaviest forest growth. It is not 
want of sufficient heat, or of sufficient or equally distributed 
moisture, which has checked the general spread of forest over 
these prairies. The soil of which the prairies are composed, as is 
shown by tho fact that trees planted upon them grow with vigor 
and ripidity, is not unsuited to tree growth. It is not, p rhaps, 
improbable that the forests of the Atlantic region once extended 
continuously as far west at least as the ninety-flfih meridian, 
altheiigh circumstantial evidence of such a theory does not e.xist ; 
and the causes which first led to the destruction of the fore.<ts in 
this region, supposing that they ever existed, cannot, with the 
present knowledge of the subj-ct. be even guessed at. It is, how- 
ever, fair to assume that forests once existed in a region adapted, 
by climate, rainfall, and soil, to produce forests, and that their 
absence under such conditions must be triiced to accidental causes. 
It is not difficult to understand that the forest once destroyed 
over such a vast area could not easily regain posses.«ion of the 
soil protected by an imoenetrable covering of sod and subjected 
to the annual burnings which have occurred down to the present 
time; while the force of the wind, unchecked by any forest 
barrier, over such an area would, even withflut the aid of hres, 
have made the sprea I of foi-est growth slow and difficult, ihe 
assumption that these eastern prairies may have once been 
covered with forests is strengthened by the tact that since they 
have been devoted to agriculture, and the annual burning has 
b»en stopped, trees which w re formerly confined to the river 
bottoms have graduiUy spreid to the uplands. Small prairies 
situated just within the western edge of the forest have entirely 
disappeared within the memory of persons still living ; the oak 
openings— open fore.-ts of largo oaks through whieh the annual 
fires plaved without greatlv injuring the full-grown trees— once 
the characteristic feature of these prairies, have disappeared. 
They are replaced by dense forests of oak. which only require 
protection from fire to spring into existence. In western Texas, 
the mesquit. forced by annual burning to grow nliuost entirely 
below the surface of the ground, is. now that prairie fires are 
less common and destrucive. spreading over what a few years ago 
wastreeless prairie. The prairies, then, or the eastern portions 
of them situated in the region of abundant rainfall, are fast losing 
their treeless character, and the forest protected from fire is 
gradually gaining in everv direction ; regions whieh fifty years 
ago were treeless outside tho river boltoms now contain forests 
covering 10 or even 20 per cent, of their area. These enstern well- 
watered prairies must not. however, be confoonded with their 
dry western rim adjoining the plains— the debatnble groiind be- 
tween forest and plain— or with -he plains them.ielves. There is 
now no gradual, constant spread of forest growth upon the 
plains. They are treeless on account of insufficient moisture to 
develop forest growth ; :ind while trees may. perhnp-;. itplant»d.. 
survive during a few years beyond the western limits of the 
prairie as hero laid down, th- permment establishment of forests 
there does not seem practicable, and, sooner or hi ter. n period of 
unusual drought must put and end to all attempts at forest culti- 
vation in a region of such insufficient arid uiicertain rainfall • 

It remains to consider the Semi-trorn'cal Forest of Florida and 
ihe Mexican Foreet of So-utliernleran. 

A group of ai-bereseent species of West Indian origin occupies 
the narrow strip of coast and islands of southern Florida. This 



belt of semi tropical vegetation is confined to tho immediate 
neighborhood of the coast and to occasional hummocks or islands 
of high ground situatid in Uie savannas which co\er a great por- 
tion of southern Florida, cheeking, by the nature of the soil and 
want of drainage, the spread of forest grow'h aero.-s the penin- 
sula. This semi-tropical forest belt reaches ci.pe jMalabar on Ihe 
east anJ the shores of Tampa bayou the west cou;-t, while some 
ot its representatives extend fully 2 degrees farther north. It 
is rich in composition ; nearly a quarter of all the arborescent 
species of the .\tlautic forest are found within this insignificant 
region. The semi-tropical forest, in spite of its variety, is of 
little economic importance. The species of which it is comiiosed 
here reached the extreme northern limit of their distribution ; 
they are generally small, stunied. and of comparatively little 
value. Certain species, however, attain respeeialde proportions ; 
the mahogany, the niasiic, the royal palm, the mangrove, the si a- 
grape, the Jamaica dogwood, the manchinecl. and other species 
here become coiisideiable and important trees. ,,. . . 

In western and south rn Texas the trees of the Mississippi 
basin, checked by insufficient moisture from tariher exlensioQ 
southward outside the liver bottoms, are nplaced by species o£ 
the plateau of northern Mexico. The streams flowing into ihe 
(Julf of Mi-xieo are still lined, however, t-ast of the one-huiidredlU 
nieridiMU. with the species of tho Atlantic basin, which thus reach 
southward to beyond the Eioljrai.de- The Mexican forest belt 
ot Texas extends from the valley of the Colorado river, mar tho 
ninety-eighth meridian, to the Rio Griinde- It touche- the coast 
not far from the Nueces river, and extends to th' eastern base 
of the mountain ranges west of the Pi cos ; here the spi cu s of 
which it is coieposed mingle with those peculiar to ihe Pacilic- 
Mexican forest. The forest of this region, like that of all countries 
of insnflicient moisture, is open, stunted, and coii'paratively of 
little value. It is tharacterizcd by enormous areas covered wuh 
chaparral (dense and often impenetrable thickets of thorny shnilis 
and small trees), by a stunted and occasional arborescent growth 
upon the hills and plains, and by fringes of heavier timler along the 
river bottoms. The most valuable an. I perhapsthe most chjinicLe^i is- 
tiospeciesofthis whole region— the mesquit— extends to ihe Pi.ciho 
coast. With this exception, none ot the arborescent species pe- 
culiar to this region attain any considerable size or iiiipoitance, 
although the forest of small junipers which cover ihe low lime 
stone hills of the Colorado valley are locally valuable in a cnujurj 
so generally destitute of trees. The region immediately ailjoin- 
ing the Rio (iraide abounds in different species of Aenvin. 
Leucana, and other Mexican Leguminoem; and farther west, 
upon the drv plains of the Presidio, the Spanish bayonet 1 1 ucfi 
haccatu) covers wide areas with a low. open, and characteruiic 
forest growth. . . . . , ., . r. i-n r, -^ 

The Pacific forest region is coextensive with the great tordill ■ Pacifio 
ran Mountain system of the continent. The causes which h:,v region, 
infiui need Ihe present posilion and density of these foiesisniust 
be simght in the peculiar ilislribution ot the rainfall of tho 
region, 'Iht- precipitation of moisture i^n the nv.ithwest coast 
is unequaled by that of any other part of the contioint It 
gradually decreases with the latitude until, in tsouthern Califor- 
nia, tho temperature of the land so far exeeds that of the ocean 
that precipitation is impossible through a large part of the year. 
Tho interior of all this great region, shut off by the high nountam 
ranges whieh face the ocean along its entire extent, is very imper- 
fectly supplied with moisture. It is a region of light, uncertain, 
and unequally distributed rainfall, heavier nt the north, a9 
upon the coast, and decreasing gradually with the latitude in 
nearly the same proportion. This entire region is compi sed of a, 
mass of mountain ranges with a general north and south trend, 
separating huig and generally narrow va'Ieys. The precipitation 
of moisture within the interior region is largely regulated by I hrt 
position of the mountain chains. Warm currents ascending their 
sides become cold, and are forced to deposit the moisture they 
contain. It follows that, while the interior valleys arc rainless 
or nearly so. the mountain ranges, and espfcially the higli ones, 
receive during the year a considerable precipitation of both ram 
and snow. If the distribution of the forests of any region is 
dependent upon the distribution and amount of moisture it re- 
ceives, forests exceeding in density these of any other part 
ot the cmitinent would be found upon the northwest coast; 
thev would gradually diminish toward the south, ami en- 
tire'lv disappear near the southern boundary of the United fctates ; 
while the forests of all the interior region, from the tiimmit ot 
the principal Coast Ranges to the eastern base of the Rocky 
Mountains, would be confined to the flanks and suinnuts of the 
mountains. These forests would be heavy upon the high ranges, 
especially toward the north; they would disappear entirely from 
the valleys and low mountain ranges. An exan.inatiiin of the 
forests of the Pacific region will show that, in general distribution 
and density, they actually follow the distribution of the rainfall 
of the region These forests well illustrate the influence of 
moisture upon forest growth. Wiihin the Pacific region, the 
heaviest and the lightest forests of the continent coexist with its 
heaviest and lightest rainfall. .j , i t 

The forests of the Pacific region may be considered under tour xj,e Pacific 
divisions : tho Northern Forest, the Coast Forest, the Interior porest. 
Forest, and the Mexican Forest. . . , t ■„ 

The Northern Fore,t of the Pacific region extends from nearly 
the seventieth to about the fifty-eighth d^ gree of nt.rth latitude 
or, immediately upon the coast, is re, laced by 'hf Co"s Jweft 
nearly 2 degrees farther north; it extcn.ls from the continental 
divide, here mingled with the Northern Forest ol the Atlantic 
region, to the shores of the Pacific. The .southern limit of this 
open, scanty Northern Forest, composed of species which extend 
across the continent, or of species closely a led to those of tho 
Northern Forest of the Atlantic region, is still imperfectly known, 
especially in the interior. The determination of the southern 



FOIiKSTs] 



UNITED STATES 



ninBo 111 Aliiskii iiiij British Columbia uf spvituI sptcios, ii,- woll 
lis tho nortUurn rmicc Iuto of ii low others, uiusi be still luft to 
(urthor esiilonitiiin. Thu whiio siJiuce. the uiost iiuportiiiit aud 
tho uiu-t northern species of the fore.-t of the Norili Atlantic 
reh'ion, is hero also tho most iiunortiiut specie.-. It iittiiins ii o.m- 
6i.lor;ililosiie H3 lur north iis the si.xty-filth (loj:ie-, lonnini;. in 
the valley ot the Inkou.f.irests ot'no liitK' l"e:il nniiortiiiiee. The 
c»no> bireh, the bal.-iiun poplar, uml tlionspiii. tiiniiliar trees of 
the North Atlantic recion, also oeeur here. The irray pine ami 
the balsam fir of the Atlantic region aro replaee.l by allied forms 
of the same „'en ra, 'I'he larch alone, of tho ilenizens of tho e.xtrome 
Northern I'.nest of tho .Atlantic coast, finUs no congener here iu 
the northe-n l';o-ific forest. 

The I'aeific ('«(i«( Fonut, the heaviest, although far from the 
most vari-il, forest of the continent, extends simth aloiiK the 
• coast in a narrow strip from the si.\iieth to tlie fiftieth iwirallel; 
hero it wi(ions, tMiibraein^ the .-horcs of l^iKet sonnd and e.vtend- 
inK eastward over the hii;h mountain ranges north and south of 
the bouudiry of the I'nitod States. This interior development of 
the (oast Kori'St. followinit the abundant rninfall of the region. 
IS eaniod northward over the (i.dd, Selkirk, ami other interior 
riinges of Kritish Columbia, in a narrow s[nir extending north 
nearly to the fiftv-lourth imrallel. It reaches southward along 
tho C<vnr .I'.AIeni), Bitter-Koot, and the western ranges of the 
Rocky .Mountain system to about latitude 47° ;«!', covering 
iinrihern \Va.shineton Territory, Idaho, and portions of western 
^lotit^ina. 

The (_'oast Fore-t south of the fiftieth degree of latitude occu- 
pies ilio region boiween the oi'can and the eastern slopes of tho 
t'a-eade llange; in California th- summits of the principal south- 
ern iirolong-.iiion of these mount.tins. the .Sierra Nevada, mark 
the eusiern limits of tho Coast Forest, whi.'h gniduallv disap- 
P-ar- south of the thirty fifth pi-allel. although still carried bv 
the high riduos of the southern Coast Range nearlv to the south- 
ern ii.iuiidary of tho I'nited States. Tho (,'oast Forest, like tho 
forests uf tho whole I'aeifie region, is largelv compo.sed of a few 
coniferous species, gen-rally of wide distribution. Tho absence 
of broa 1 leaved trees in the I'aeilic region is striking: they nowhere 
form great forests, as in the Atlantic resion: when they occur 
they are eonfined to the vallevs i.f the coast anil to th- banks of 
mountain streams, and, economically, are of coniimrativrly little 
valu ■ or importance. The characteristic and most valuable 
Fpeei'S of tho northern Coast Forest are the Alaska cedar 
(f /i.im»-e(;;)ari«), the tide land spruce, and tho hemlock. These 
form the iirinciiial foi>-st growth which covers the ranges and 
islaiHls of the coast between the sixty-first and fiftieth jiarallels 
Uth.'r species of the Coast Forest reach here the northern limits 
of their distribution, although the center of their greatest de- 
velopment is found farther south. 
The red fir. The red fir IPHnalutimoat. tlie most important and widely 
distribute.! timber tree of the Pacific r.gK.n, reaches the coast 
archi'ielago in latitude .'il'': farther inland it e.vtends fully 4 
degrees fjrther north, anil in the regmn of I'nget sound and 
threogh the Coast Forest of Washington Territi.ry andoregon it 
is the prevailing forest tree. The characteristic forest of tho 
nortiiwest eoa.-t. although r.'iiresented by sevenil species extend- 
ing south liS far as cape .Menilieiilo. near tho fortieth parallel is 
replaced south of the Hogne River valley by a forest in which 
forms iieciiliar to the south rather than to the north gradually 
predoiniiiate. The forest of the northwest cnast reaches it great- 
est den-ity and voricfy in the narrow region between the sum- 
mits of the Cascade Range and the ocean. North of the fifty-fir«t 
parallel it gradually decroa-es in density, and south of the fortv- 
(hird iiarallel it changes in composition and character. This belt 
of Coast Forest is only furpasseil in density bv that of some 
portions of the redwni>d forest of tho California coast. The red 
fir. the great lidc-lanil si>riiec. the hemlock, and tho red cedar 
{Tliiiu'O reai-h here enormous dimensions. The wide river bot- 
toms are lined with a heavy growth of maple, Cottonwood, ash. 
and alder, the narrow interior valley with an open growth of oak 
In this great coniferous forest the trunks of trees two or 
three hundred feet in height are often only separated bv tho 
snaee of a few feet. The ground, shaded throughout the veiir by 
the impcnctiBblo canoiiy of tho forest, never becomes dry ; it is 
densely covered bv a thick carpet of mosses and ferns, "often of 
enormous size. The mere oiien portions of this forest arc choked 
by an impen. arable growth of various Vaccimir of almost arbores- 
eimt proportions, of hazel, the vine-mai)le, and other shrubs 
','!" *"''. "nich has produced the maximum growth of forest in 
this region is, out-ide the river bottoms, a thin, porous gravel of 
glaeial nri.'in. rar ly more than a few inches in depth; the 
luxuriance of vcnetable growth, therefore, illustrates tho influence 
of a heavy rainfall and temperate climate upon tho forest. 

Tho general character of this forest jn the intcrio-. although 
coniposed largely of the species peculiar to the coast, differs some- 
what from the Coa-t Forest iiroiier in compoition and 1 irgely in 
natural featups. The dense, imjienetrable forest of the coast is 
reiilaeed. east of the summit of the (^ascade Range. h\ a more 
oijon growth, g-ncnilly largely destitute of undergrowth. The 
red fir. the h-mliek. and tho red cedar (7/iiii(o) ar' still iniimrtant 
elements of the forest. Less vnlnablo species of tho Coast Forest 
—the white fir '.-l/oV. prnndiu], the yew. the alders, the mountain 
hemlock \,Tiiign Pnitnntnnn). tho hawthorn, the biiekthorn, and 
th" white pino i/'iniu nion/icofai— are still represented. The 
latter, a local species upon the coast, onlv reaches its greatest 
development toward ihc eastern limit of this region, here f inning 
considerable a'.d i.ip.rtant fersts. Other speeies peculiar to the 
Coast torcst. the maples, tlica-h. the oak. th- arbutus, and the 
Alaska cedar, do n.'t extend east of the Cascades. The tirle land 
spruce is rerlac -d by an allied speeies of th'» interior regi-in. The 
widely .listribute I yellow pine i/'inut pntirl^rmin), barely rnpre- 
(ented in the northern portions of the immediate Coast Forest, be- 



comes, east of thi' nieuntains. one of the most important and char- 
acteristic el. meiits ..f ihe forest. The Coiist Fore.-t south oi tho 
forty third degree ot latitude changes in composition The tiilc- 
land spruce, the hcmloek and the Thuyti are gradmilty replaeid 
by moce southern -leeies. The sugar pine i^ Lmiiht, tiiiiiii' hero 
first appears. The Califoinni laurel i i'mUlluluri- e..\eis with 
magnificent growth ilic broad river bottoms. The Lilimnhua, 
several oaks, anil the chimiuipin here reach the norin< rn limis 
of their distributioi. The change trom ihe northein to the soulh- 
ero forest is marked by the apiioarance of the Port Orfoid cedar 
{C/iumnx-uparis Lnwsoitiun<i^. lidding variety and \alue to tlio 
(on St- 01 the southern iiregon const Farther south, near tho 
northein boundary of California, the redwood forests i^Quoia) 
api;i ar 

ihe Coast Forest of California will be most conveniently dis Coast of 
eu.-sed under three subdivisions: the forest of the Coast Range California, 
the t'liest of tho western slope ot the Sierra Nevada, whieli, 
tonard the northern beundnry of the state, extend- to the const. 
covering the mass of mountains which here unite the Sierra 
Nevada and the Coast Range: and. third, the open forest of the 
long, narrow valh ys lying between the Coast Range and tho 
Sierra .\evada south of this northern connection. Tin- iniiii riant 
feature of the Coa-t Kauge. as far south as the thirty scvi nth 
degree of latitmle. is the belt of redwood occupying an irregular, 
interrupted strij) of ti'n itory facing the ocean, and hardly c.xeeed- 
ing thirty miles in widtli al the points of its greatest development. 
The heaviest growth of the redwood forest occurs north o! the bay 
ol San Francisco; and here, along the slopes and bottom of tho 
narrow canons of the western slope of the Coast Kai ge. the maxi- 
mum iiroductive caiiacity of the forest is reached. No other 
forest of similar extent equals in the amount ot material which 
they contain the groups of redwce.d scattered along the eoist "f 
northern California. The red fir reaches, in the Califori ia Const 
Range, a size and vnliio only surpassed in the more northern for- 
ests of tlie coast: th" yellow pine is an important tree in tho 
northern iiortions of this region, and here flourish other species of 
the ginus endemic to this region. The forest of the Coast Rango 
i.s marked by the presence within its limits of several species of 
singularly restricted distribution, fupretifu/i macmcitrpu and 
PiuuH insifjnih aro confined to a few isolated groves up.n iho 
shoi-cs of the bay of Monterey: Alii'tt hractttta occupies three or 
four canons high up in the Santa l.ueia mountains: it is found 
nowhere else: and Phins 'J'orrri/aiut. the most b"c;il arborescent 
speeies of North .Ameiica. has been detected onlv in one or two 
small groups upon tho saud-dunes just north of th bay of , San 
Diego. The charaeteri-tic forest of the Const l.'nni-e is eh' eked 
from farther southern development a little behw rlic thirty fillli 
parallel by insuftieient moisture; the scanty forests whi- li 
clothe the high declivities of the Coast Range faithcr south belong 
in composition to the Sierra forests. 

The heavy forest which covers the western slopes of the Sierra The Sierra 
Nevada, a forest only surpassed in density by tho n dwood belt of Nevada 
the C'lost and the fir forest of Puget sound, occutics. in it- forcstn 
greatest development, a belt situated between 4.' Iin and 8.1 (ill feet 
elevation. This forest belt extends from about the ba.se of mount 
Shasta at the north to the thirty-fifth parallel: farther .south it 
diminishes in density and disaiipears uimn the southern ridges of 
the Coast Range .iost north of the southern boundary of California. 
Its greatest width occurs in northern California, where to the 
south of mount Shasta, the Sierra system is broken down into a 
broad mass of low riilges and jienks. The characteri-tie spieies of 
this forest is the great sugar pine (/* /.oai/.erti'oioi*. which hero 
reaches its greatest devcloiiment and value, ai d gives unsur- 
passed beauty to this mountain forest. With the sugar pine aro 
associated the red fir. the yellow [line, tivo lud.Ie Ahit-g, tho 
LihonilruM: nnd. toward the central part of Ihe state, the great 
SiQuoid. appearing first in small isi.lnfi d groups, and then, farther 
south, nenr the headwaters of ICern liv i. in a narrew belt extend- 
ing more or Ic-s eontinuouslv for several miles This heavy forest 
of the Siirras. unlike the fop st whicli farther north covers tho 
western flanks of the Cascade Range, iselmost ilcstitute of urdcr- 
growtb nnd y. ung trees. It sliows the influence of a warm 
climate aid nne\cnly di-tribnfid rainfall upon forest growth. 
The trees, often remote from one another, have attained an enor- 
mous size: but they have grown slowly. Above this belt tho 
Sierra forest stretches npward to tho limits of tree growth. It is 
here sulmlpine and alpine in charaeter. and of little ecinotnio 
value. lljff"rcnt pines ami furs, th" mountain hemlock, and Iho 
western junip"r. are scatti red in open stretches of forest upon tho 
high ridges ' f Ihe Sierras. The fopst below the belt of hcnvv 
growth gradually .becomes more open. Individual trees are 
smaller, while the number of species incren.ses. The small pim s 
of the upper foothills arc mingled with oaks in considera' lo 
variety. This ■ gradually increase in number. Pines aro less 
frcouent. and finally di-appear. 

The forest of the valleys is composed of oaks, the individuals Valley 
often widely sentter d and of great size, but nowheri' forming a forests, 
continuous, coinp'iet growth The Coast Forest of the Pacific 
region, unsurtmssed in density, is coniposed of a comparatiiely 
small number of species, often nttaiuing enormous size. It pre- 
sents tho same general features throughout its entire extent, 
except as modified bv the climatic conditions of the regions which 
it covers. The spi'ctes whicli compose tliis forest range through 
nearly 26 degrees of latilnde. or northern species, are replaced in 
Ihc south by closely allied forms: and. as in the .Atlantic region, 
the southern species far exceed in number those peculiar to tho 
north. 

The Inlrrior Forrif extends from the southern limits of tho 
northern subarctic forest to the plateau of northern Mexico: it 
oecnnies the entire region between the eastern limits of the Pacifio 
Coast Forest and the extreme western limits of the Atlantic 
region. The forests of this entire region, as compared with the 



UNITED STATES 



[forests. 



forests east and west of it, are stuntoil antl remarkable Jn their 
poverty of corapositiou. They are confined to the higli shjpf.s and 
canons of the numerous mountjiin ranges composiuy the interior 
regiun. ^vhile the valleys are treeless, or, outside ot the narrow 
river bottoms, nearly treeless. The interior forest attains its 
great'.st development and considerable importance upon the 
western -Inpe of the California k'ierras and upon the tlanks of the 
high pL-aks of the southern Rocky .Mountain system, from Colo- 
rado, wtiere the timber line reaobts an txtreme elevation of 
13,5UU feet, to southern New Mexico and western Arizona, The 
minimum in North American forest development, outside the 
absolutely treeless reirions. both in the number of species and in 
the prorHiition ot" forest to entire area, is found south of the Blue 
mountriin.s of Oregon, iu the arid region between the Wahsatch 
mouiiinius and the Sierra Nevada, known as the Great Basin. 
Here the open, stunted forest is confined to the highest ridges and 
slopes of the infrequent canons of the low mountain ranges which 
occupy, with a general north and south trend, this entire region. 
The individuals which compose this forest are small, although often 
of immense age, and everywhere show the marks of a severe strug- 
gle for existence. Seven arborescent species only have been detect- 
ed in the forests of the northern and central portions of this n-gion. 
Tha mountain mahogany {Cerrocarpus), the only broad-leaved 
species of the region, with the exception of the aspen, which 
throughout the entire interior region borders, above an elevation 
of S.MJU feet, alt mountain streams, reaches here its greatest 
development. This tree, with the nut pine [Piniis monophuUn), 
characterizes this region. Stunted junipers are scattered over the 
lowest slopes of the mountains, or farther south often cross the 
high valleys, and cover with open growth the mesas, as the lower 
foot-hills are locally known. An open forest of arborescent 
yuccas {Yucca brevifoHa) upon the high ]\lojave plateau is a 
characteristic and peculiar feature of the flora of this interior 
region. The red fir and the yellow pine, widely distributed 
throughout the Pacific region, do not occur upon the mountam 
ranges of the Great Basin. 
Fofx (s of 'I'he heavy forests of the interior region, found along the 
intei it. western slopes of the California Sierra.s and upon the Rocky 
Mountain system, are, for the most part, situated south of the 
forty-second de^Tee of latitude. The forests of the whole northern 
interior portion nf the continent, outside the region occupied in 
the northern Kueky Mountains by the eastern development of the 
Coast Forest, feel the intluonce of insufficient moisture; the 
number of species of which they are composed is not large; the 
individuals are often small and stunted, while the forests are 
open, scattered, without undergrowth, and confined to the canons 
and high slopes of the mountains. The most gent'rally distributi-d 
species of this northern region, a scrub pine, (Piiuts Murrayana), 
occupies vast areas, almost to the exclusion of other .^iiecios, and 
is gradually taking possession of ground cleared by fire of more 
valuable trees. South of the fifty-second parallel the red fir 
{Pscii'lotsuga) and the yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) appear; 
with them is associated, in the Blue Mountains and in some of the 
rang -s of the norchern Rocky Mountains, the western larch 
{Larix oceidentalis), the largest and most valuable tree of the 
Columbian basin. 

The forest covering the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada con- 
sists almost exclusively of various species of pine, often of great 
Bize and value. The charact^'ristic species of this region are the 
yellow pine and the closely allied Pinun Jeffrcyi, here reaching 
Us greatest development. The red fir is absent from this forest. 
■while the oaks, mulliplied in many forms on the western slopes of 
these mountains, have here no representative. 

The forests of the southern Rocky Mountain region, less heavy 
and less generally distributed than those of the western slope of 
the Sierras, are, as compared with those of the Great Basin, heavy, 
dense, and valuable. They owe their existence to the compara- 
tively large precipitation of moisture distributed over this ele- 
vated region. The characteristic species of the Colorado moun- 
tains is a spruce iPicea Engehmnini); it forni:^, at between 8,U00 
and lU.iifMi feet elevation, extensive and valuable forests of con- 
siderable density and great l)eauty ; with it are associated a balsam 
fir of wide northern distribution, and various alpine and subalpine 
species of pine ; at lower elevations forests of yellow pine and red 
fir cover the mountain slopes, while the bottoms of the streams 
are lined with cotfonwood, alder, and maple, oi* with an open 

frowth of the white fir (Abies concotor), a species of the Coast 
'orest, here reaching the eastern limits of its distribution; the 
foot-hills above the treeless plain are covered with scant groves of 
the nut-pine (Pinus edulisK stunt'^d jutiipers, and a small oak, 
which in many forms extends through a large area of the southern 
interior region. A forest similar in general features to that of 
Colorado, and largely composed of the same species, extends over 
the high mountains of New Mexico to those of western Texas and 
western and northwestern Arizona, where a heavier forest of pine 
covers the elevated region lying along the thirty-fifth parallel, 
culminating in the high forest-clad San Francisco mountains of 
northern Arizona. 

The species of the interior Pacific region mingle along its 
southern borders with the species peculiar to the plateau of 
Dorthern Mexico. The Pacific-Mexican Forest, although differing 
widely in natural features from the Atlantic-Mexican Forest, 
possesses several species peculiar to the two. The forests of this 
region are confined to the high mountains and their foot-hills, and 
to the banks of the rare water-courses. They disappear entirely 
from the Colorado desert and from the valleys and low mountain 
ranges of southwestern Arizona. The most important and gener- 
ally distributed species peculiaj- to the valleys of this region is the 
mesquit. the characteristic species of the Atlantic-Mexican region. 
The suwarrow. however, the great tree cactus, is perhaps the mo>*t 
remarkable species of the region, giving an unusual and striking 
appearance to the dry mtsas of central and southern Arizona. 



The high mountain ranges, extending across the boundary of the 
Tnited States, between the one hundred and fifth and the ono 
hundred and eleventh meridians, enjoy a larger and more regu- 
larly distributed rainfall than the regions east, and especially 
west, of these meridians. The forests which cover these southern 
mountain ranges are often dense and varied. Upon their summits 
and almost inaccessible upper slopes the firs and pines of the 
Pacific region are mingled with pines, a juniper, an arbutus, and 
various other species peculiar to the Mexican plateau. Extensive 
forests of a cypress of Mexican origin also characterize this moun- 
tain vegetation. The bottoms of the canons are lined with a 
dense growth of cottonwood, hackberry, a noble sycamore, an ash, 
a cherry, and other deciduous trees. The high foot-hills and mesaa 
are covered with open groves of various oaks peculiar to the 
Mexican-Pacific region, here reaching, within the United States 
at least, their greatest development. ' 

Such are some of the prominent forest features of North 
Aiuei ica; a dt-nse forest, largely composed, exceid at the north, of 
a greac variety of broad-leaved species, and extending from the 
Atlantic sea-board in one nearlv unbroken sheet until checked by 
insuthcient moisture from furtherwesterndevelopment— the forest 
of the Atlantic region; a forest of conifers, occupying the ranges 
of the great Cordilleran mountain system, unsurpassed in density 
in the humid climate of the coast, open and stunted in the arid 
interior— the forest of the Pacific region. 

A more detailed examination of the distribution of North 
American arborescent genera and species will serve to illustrate 
the wealth of the forests of the Atlantic and the comparative 
poverty of those of the Pacific region. It will show, too. more 
clearly how widely the forests of these two great regions difl'er in 
composition. 

The economical importance of the forests of the United States The econoii 
is very great, but can hardly be expressed by figures. Some facts, ioal impoi 1 
however, may be stated in this connection. The wood from theanceof the 
forest is used in the main for fuel. Although coal exists in abun- forests, 
dance over certain regions, and although there are parts of the 
thickly settled region.-- where forests are scanty, there is no dis- 
trict where some wood is not used as fuel. In the cities of the 
East— even those which are in the immediate vicinity of coal— a 
good deal of wood is necessarily consumed in the form of kind- 
lings,— an important item where anthracite is the coal sui'plied; 
and, moreover, open fires are extensively used by the wealthier 
class, in conjunction with coal in furnaces. In other regiona 
where coal is abundant, forests are also abundant, and as these 
must be cut down to be sawn into lumber, or to clear the land for 
cultivation, there is a large supply of wood available as fuel, but 
not fit to be used for building or manufacturing. Except in the 
large cities, and occasionally in the towns of second and third 
rank, wood is used almost exclusively for the building of houses 
and barns in the United States. Fences also consume a very large 
amount of W(*od, this material being in common use for this pur- 
pose wherever timber is abundant, and often where it is not, as in 
the prairie States, where, however, within a few years, wire has 
begun to be very extensively used for fences. There is also a very 
large consumption of wood for furniture and for those portions of 
various imjdements, especially agricultural, which are made of 
this material. An even larger supply of wood is required for the 
boxes and barrels in which various articles of merchandise are 
transported. The consumption of wood in the form of barrels, as 
required by the two articles flour and salt, is very large. 

The great demand for cheap wooden ware, and the extensive use Chenp 
of wood in building houses, and for various portions of the finish- wooden 
ing and fittings of hou.-es and barns, has led_ to the invention of ware, 
very ingenious machinery by the aid of which wood is wrought 
into almost every variety of forms with very little direct help from 
human hands. This makes the coarser kinds of furniture and of 
household implements exceednigly chenp. As an example, it may 
be mentioned that barrels strong enough to hold in transportation 
two hundred and eighty pounds of salt are made in Michigan for 
50 small a sum as twenty cents. 

The building of 1. g houses— that is, of such dwellings as are liOg house- 
made by piling trunks of trees on each other, either in their 
natural shap ', or partly squared with the axe— is almost a thing 
of the past, although once extremely common. Very few districts 
in the region of abundant forests are so far away from saw-mills 
and railroads as to make a log house the most economical form of 
dwelling. Occasionally some large, substantial and well-finished 
buildings are erected " log-house fashion,'" either as a matter of 
fancy, or to attract attention by an exterior of exceptional ap* 
pearanire. 

Some idea of the importance of the forests from an economical 
point of view can be gained from the following figures given by 
the census of ISSO, in reference to the manufacture of sawn lum- 
ber:— 

Number of establishments ^, ^ 2.5,708 

Capital invested $181.18tU22 

Average number of hands employed H' .^'o6 

Feet ot lumber produced 18,091,356,000 

Number of laths 1.761 .TSs.noO 

Number of shingles 5.D5.-^n4^^^00 

Number of staves 1,248,22inU00 

Number sets headings 14(i.523.000 

Feet of bobbin and spool stock 34,076.000 

Total value of the above specified pro- 

ducts g23n.r.R5.0fit 

Value of other products 2.b82.i'*i8 

Total value ^^367^729 



8CEN0GRAPHUAL.] U N 1 J. ii* D 

The consumption of wood *' f»»r dmncstic purposi's "— tlmt i.-^. us 
fuel in liousi-s— is givon by tin- census of I^nU iis nmountiuK to 
14l>.537.4.i9 corils. tmviiit; uii rsnniattd value «'f >i*'<i,;".)tM'40. 
Viilue of The total eon.^uuiption of wood its fuel is given iw follows:— 

wood. C(»rds. Viilue. 

For domestic fuel UO.MT j;i9 83i«i.H5ii.(»40 

By railroads l.HTl .sia 5.1'Jl.T U 

By sleaiuboat^ 787.8G2 i"- Irli'^i 

luminitiK und -meltint: 6-4.'^4.'> 3 ■hH.LS'j 

In making bru'ks und liles J, 157.5^2 3.1*i8..i:.I 

luumkiuKsalt ?^o*1*S 1^-'*^M 

In woollen uitinufacture loS.LUS i^y,^^ J 

Total 14i.778.l37 S321.it02.:i73 

The total value of the wood used as lumber and as fuelauiounU. 

therefoFL', tn no le^s than ?.'>aj.3;i0. lu2, it the figures given by tho 
census of I8">0tire tu bo trusted. The value ni the wood consumi-d 
as fiud in the United Stites was more than tbr«-e tinu's as gryat as 
that of the coal mined. In fat't. the timber of the country is tho 
greatest of all its material possessions. Th.- coal. onciM-xhiiu^trd, 
can never be restored, not even with the liipso i)f an indefinite 
amount of lime, for the conditions favorable to tlie production of 
coiil on the earth have entirely censed to exist. Tlie timber, on 
the oilier hand, is restored, nfter detJtruetion by maii.by tliu kindly 
hand of Nature. This is the case, at least, over the whole of tho 
onoe densely timbered portion of the country, whore the various 
growths succeeding each other after the primal forest has been re- 
moved offer a satisfactory substitute for that which has been made 
use of. either naturally nr as an easily attainable result of cultiva- 
tion. In retcions whore the rainfall isof insuffieient uniount. there 
appotrs to be a tendency in Nature to replaee the <iriK'inal growth 
bv one of inferior quality. Whether this inferiority would be 
liistiniTor not. seems a doubtful matter. That th-re has been .a 
diminution of the precipitation, certainly dating back to the Ter- 
tiary age. and. in all prob^ibility, to a much earlii-r time, is a 
geological tact esiabli-lied beyond all possible doubt. That this 
diminution has anything to tlo with the removal of tho forests by 
the hand of man. or that rmin can to any pereeptible extent in- 
iluonee the general climate of the country, there is not the slight- 
est reason for believing. 

SCENoyilAPHICAL. 

The great extent of the territory occupied by the United States 
is a sufficient reason why there should be a corresponding variety 
in the scenery. In the early hi>tory of the county. \\ hen only the 
Atlantic coast and the eastern -^ide of the Appalachian belt were 
kniiwu to travelers, the landsea[)e was generally consideroil 
monotonous by those who visited this region as tourists, or with a 
view to the enjoyment and description of its scenery. This impres- 
sion of uniformity and monotony wa.s further confirmed, as the 
Mississippi Valley and the region of the (ireat Lakes were added 
to the tourist's range. Many persons visited the prairies of Illi- 
nois and the adjacent States for the purpose ofgottiut; nn idea of 
ft vast exp!Ui>e of almost unbroken country such as could hardly 
be obtained elsewhere in the Northern lleuiisphcre without visil- 
inu Southeastern Russia and the eountry east of tlie Urals. The 
g-.-neral resemblance of tho Appalftehian Mountain scenery to 
that of parts of Northern and Central Kurotu'— as. for instance, 
that of the White Mountains to that of the Erzebirgc. or that of 
Northern New England to that of Scandinavia— could hardly es- 
cape notice, similarity of topographical features bi-ing supplcnn-n- 
ted in many f^o^es by the absence of any speeially marked differ- 
ences in the floras of the regions in question. Thus tho writer, 
having spent a summer in a geolo;rieaI exploration of New Ilami>- 
phire, found himself after a very short interval of time traveling 
through Southern Sweden. The inipre:-sion of the scenic similar- 
ity of the two regions was extremely int'TCSting. Not only were 
tho rocks, nick-forms and topographieal fcntures the same, but 
the vegetation— although of course not identical so far as the 
Fpecies were coneerned— made, from the scenic point <>f view, al- 
most exactly the same impression on the eye in the Scamlinuviau 
country that it did over large portions of New I-'iit-dnnd. 

in those I'arly 'lays of travel, especially of English travel, to the 
United States, the dominating idea was to see Niagara Falls, 
which was the great point of attraction. Occasionally an adven- 
turous traveler went farther West and down the Mississippi; but 
for ninety-nine out of a hundred tourists who \ isited this country 
and described its scenery, Niagara was the Ultima Thule. The 
Farthest opening of the " Farthest West " by roads and railntads, tlio acien- 
Vest, titic exploration of the Cordilleran regirui. the development of its 

mineral resources, and the rapidly growing desire on tho part of 
many to see as much of the world as possible—all this has very 
greatly enlarged the range of experience in the enjoyment of scen- 
ery, while the art of photography has rendered it possible for those 
not caring to travel, to understand and enjoy the scmio features of 
distant countries, and to compare undersfandingly tho landscapes 
of regions wid^ ly separateil from each (»ther. 

To attempt to describe tho r<rincipal features of the scenery of a 
country having an area of more than three milHtui S(|uare miles, is, 
of course. soTiiething not to bo thomrht nf in the preeent connec- 
tion. All that can be done is to indieate some of the points most 
vi.-ited, and most worthy of being visited, by tourist**, and to 
compare in a genei^al way, some of the more striking features of 
the landscape of this country with those of regions of similar scenic 
character in other parts of the world. 
Appalftch- In doing this we may begin with the mounUiins. The Appnlnch- 
ijin Mou:i- i*in Mountain scener>- is only to he compared with that of the 
tain seen- minor chains of Europe, since these ca.«tern ranu'es never rise to 
efy, tho snow-line, and are almost always w-oodcd to their summits. 

The principal features of Appalachian topography have been 
already dwell upon to as great an extent as space would allow: 
and it needs here only to be stated that, while these features arc 



STATES 

often of exceeding interest to goologist.'! and other close etudents 
of iiuture. th.'v di. nut exhibit any torins nhioh in grandi-iir can be 
nuui'iiirU witli thcisc i;f Oiiumoii occurronco in tlu' (..'ordilleras or 
the A 1 lis i.r, still niuiv. in tho llinialiiya, Thorc arc from the 
sofuifiiuint of view fc-iv, if imy. nniiiuo figures in the Arpalaeh- 
iati runKCS. The nearest approaeh.tu sueh is perhaps the Natural 
IJridKe in Virginui— an ureh of lunestono craeefully spaiiniig a 
eha-ni about two hundred f.ci deep and sixty feel wide— 
and the I'rolile in the Kraiiei.nia Noteh. in which nio-sscs of rock 
ave so disposed as to reiiresent. in KiKantie diinonsious. and with 
'riUing iipproueh to accuracy in Ki-neral outline, the profile of at 
hinnau face. Kullvas tinea iirofilc iis tliiit in the Wliiie Moun- 
tiiins is to he seen in Cohirado ; but as this latter loeallty 19 not 
easily accessible, and is surroundeil by an abundaiiee of grand 
scenery, it is hardlv known to the Keiieral tourist, and seems never 
to have been described, while of the Profile in the White Moun- 
tains the descril>Hons are numerous. To the tniincd eye of tho 
topok-rapher and geologist the extraordinary intricate and excep- 
tional forms of the ranges and vallejsin t'cntnd Pennsylvania are 
of vastly greater interest than sueh accidental and fanciful occur- 
rences as th(^ Profile in the Franeonia Noteh. . 

A purely American name for somethinK which is not of uncom- « Uiti! Moun- 
mon ooeurreuco in mountain regions is the word " flome. whicb tain uume. 
as applied in the United States, and chiefly in tho White Moun- 
tains, means a narrow pa-sage or defile between nearly perpendic- 
ular roeks, through ivhiih riiiia a stream, and usually with a suo- 
eessiou of cascades. The White M(.untain Hume, in the Franeonia 
Notch, is till- locality of this kind most visited. It is about tour 
hundred feet in lonctll. and tin- walls are from twenty to fifty feet 
in hi'lKht. A di-epcut in the sandstone at Keesville. ^ew \ ork. 
near Lake Champlain. on the Au liable Itivcr. is called o. eliasm. 
The term " notch." is u.-ed in the White Mountains, and to a limit- 
ed extent in the Adirondaeks. for pass nr mountain valley. Isim- 
ilar passes or depressions in the Apiailnchian ranges farther tsontli. 
esrieciallv in Pennsylvania, are called "gaps." Ihosi- which are 
deeply cut down, so as to give passage to streains. are called 
" water gaps; " those in which the depression in the ridge is not 
sufficiently deep to give passage to a water-coarse, arc known as 
" wind-gaps." The gorge at the great bend of the Delaware, w hero 
this stream traverses the Kittatinny Kange. and which is known as 
the " Delaware Water-(iap." is a prominent scenic feature of this 

''I'lie lioints in the New Kngland portion of the Appalachian sys- New England 
tem which are most visited by tourists for the sake of the pano- Mountains, 
rainio views whicli theyatTord are Mount Washington— the only 
iioint ovor six thonsaiMl feet in eb^vation in the Appalaehiatis 
north of North Carolina; .Mount Lafayette, in the Iranconia 
Range (.S.-J'.Ofeet); Moosilaoke (4.7;il' feetl. a little farther south; 
Moniidnnek. near the southern liordt r of New Hampshire (.i.ioa 
feet); Mount .Mansfield, in the ilreeu Mountain Kange in Ver- 
mont (1.:M) feel) ; IJrcyloek. in the northwest corner ol Massachus- 
etts IS.rHiH feet\ Till' Adirondiieks also attract great numbers of 
visitors, where the hikes and stnams afford o|.portunities for 
boating and fishing, and where the scenery is extremely attractive, 
espeeially in the autumn after the leaves have begun to change 
their color, most <.f this region being still covered with tfic prime- 
val forest. Mount Marcy. or Tahawas .''..344 feet, and W hlteface 
(4,871 fectlare the points niostfro<iueiitl' .iscended in this region; 
but there are maiiv olliers. ranging from three to five thousand feet 
in elevation, which offer fine views and are not at all difficult of ac- 
cess. The Catskill group is also a region imioh resorted to by tourists, 
partly on account of the beauty of the scenery, and partly because 
it is so easily reached frcao N.'w York. The high mountain region in 
North Carolina is t<«i remote to attract many visitors from the 
Northern and Eastern States; and the facilities for travel in that 
region are as vet extrem"ly deficient, in striking contrast with the 
condition of things in this respect in the mountain districts of 
New England and New York, where almost every point can be 
reached bv railroad, and wh'Te hotels are numerous and commo- 
dious, and the business of receiving and taking care of summer 
boarders " seems to he a most important one for the permanent 

"The^monntain scenery of tho Cordilleran region is extremely Cordillenia 
varied in ch;irieter. as has already been made evident to the read- Mountain 
er in the sk.'tch of tho topography of that part of the country scenery, 
given in the preceding pages. Only a few of its more important 
features can here ho indicated. , 

In elevation the Cordilleran ranges are comparable to tne 
Swiss Alps, although there is no point in the Liiited States proper 
quite as high as Mont lihinc (l,i.TS4 feet), or Monte Rosa (1-1.217 
feetl : but therc^ are several which surpass tho I'lnster Aarhorn,— 
the culminating point of the Herncse I Iberhind (U.O'Jfi feet),--and 
there are a large number wllieh have a greater elcvatum than 
the .fungfrau (13.671 feet). A very curious feature in the Cordil- 
leras is tho closeness with which the highest peaks approach each 
other in altitude, as shown by the folhiwing table of eleviitlona of 
all the points in the Cniteil States supposed to be over fourteen 
thousand throe hundrcl feet high, all "f which arc in the Rocky 
Mountains, and all in Colorado with the exception of the two vol- 
canic cones. Shasta and Rainier:— 

MOU.VTAIN. Et.KVATIOS AT AUTUORITT. 

SI-:a t.FVEL. 

Blanca Peak 14.4l\4 Ilayden Survey. 

Mount Rainier U.4M V . .>. Coast Survey. 

Mount Shasta 14.442 Ciil. C.eol. Survey. 

Mount Harvard 14.:i75 Hayden (14.4.T2 Whitney). 

Mount Elbert 14.:Vil Ilayden Survey. 

Cray's Peak 14.:'41 Ilayden (14.31'.l W hltncy). 

Mount Rosalie 14.:flll Havden fwr^V. 

Torrey's Peak 14.3.W Hayden (14.37o Whitney). 

Mount Evans 14..'^3II Ilayden. 

La Plata Mt 14.311 Hayden Survey. 



U N I ^r E 1) S T AXES 



[sCENOGRAPHICATj, 



ri'" vncions 
iji Colorado. 



Comparison 
(if Coidil- 
)e as and 
Alps. 



Mount 
Shasta. 



Mount 
Uood. 



JVImint 
Kaiiiier. 



Thci/iljuve are nil th'- points in the Coidiilenis believed to be 
over foiu Leen tli'iusand three huudrLd feet in elevatiun. with the 
(.'.trepiion of Muuut \Vhitne,\. which has bten several time.-- meas- 
ured, with ruthc-r di>(_-<trdanl n.'^ulls, ranging all the uaj from 
14,6U0 to 14.S9S teL't; there i^ youd reason, however, for believing 
this to be the highest point in tin.- United States, not ii. eluding 
Alasktt. All the heights given above, with the '.xeepti- n of 
Kitinior, were nbtiiiin_d by the a.d utthe barometer, and are nut to 
betuuei'iis btJin;^' absulutely accnrate. The elevations in Colo- 
rado hy thi- Uayden Survey, %vhich are the result ot aeouibination 
of barunictiieal and trigonometrical measurements, are probably 
pretfy el i;;e approximations to the truth. The measurement of 
Rainier, depending as it did nn trigunnmetrical measurementu 
niaiie at a great distance, are — in the writer's opinion— not to be 
aecipted a:^ final, and may be farther from the truth than a single 
barometrical observation would have been; but this mountain, 
althouiih several finies ascended, has not heeu measured baromet- 
rically. 

The essential difference between the Cordilleran ranges and the 
Alps is that the latter aie much more extensively covered with 
snow than are th ■ former, and that this snow gives rise to perma- 
nent y^laeiers, descending far beluw the snow-line, and constitut- 
ing a very proniineni and exceedingly attractive feature in the 
scenery ol the High'r .Al|>s. With th'.- exception of the great vol- 
canic eones of th ■ Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range there is no 
part "if the Curdiileras where snow or ice forms a prominent 
ioat'ire in the sc*nery during the summer, at the time when the 
mountains are visited bv tourists. The winter snow, of course, 
covers the mountains, often to a very large extent, and summer 
snow-falls do the same occasionally ; but the effect of this latter 
kind of occurrence is in no respect to be compart d with that of the 
p.-rmanent Alpine snows and glaciers; indeed, the irregular melt- 
ing away of the summer's snow on the flanks of the ranges, leav- 
ing great patches promiscuously scattered here and there, is often 
rather a disagreeable than a pleasant feature. A remarkable e.x- 
cepti'o Is the cross of snow on the " Mountain of the Holy Cross," 
to which allusion has already been made. There are small masses 
of ice around the highest peaks of some of the Cordilleran ranges, 
but those are frequently covered and entirely concealed by snow, 
even during the summer; and whether prope ly called ghiciers or 
not, they have no effect on the landscape, and are only seen by 
those ascending to the summits of the highest ]ieaks, and then only 
in favorable seasons- 

The snow and ice covering the higher portions of the great vol- 
canic eones ot the Pacific coast are. however, conspicuous features 
in the soenic eff' ct produced by these grand niass(S ; and the type 
of landscape which they present is a peculiar one, and. perhaps, 
the most impressive wliich this country offeis. Ijassen's Peak is 
tho most souihern ot these volcanic masses, and it is nearly as 
high as Mount Hood ; but it rises from a so nuu-h higher base, and, 
being so much farther south, is so much less covered with snow 
than that cone, that it is by no moans as grand an object as its 
more northern rival. The snow fields on the upper portion of the 
southeirn flank of Lassen's Peak have always presented nearly the 
same appearance in summer when seen indifferent years by the 
writer, indicating a considerable degree of permanency; yet when 
these fields were climbed over there was no indication of the exist- 
ence of ice visible. 

Mount Shasta, seventy miles farther north, and nearly four 
thousand feet higher than Lassen's Peak. is. of course, much more 
covered with ^ now. which, although diminishing greatly in amount 
after several successive dry seasons, never disapinars entirely, 
even on the south side. On that side, when this mountain was 
ascende*! by fh" writer in Septeiiiber, 1862, seven miles of the 
ascent were made over a snow-field tilling one of the great ravines 
by which this mighty cone is furrowed. Seven years later this 
field was almost entirely gone at the same season of the year, and 
the evaporation of the snow had uncovered a larse field of ice on 
tlie north side of the cone, of whicli nothing had been visible in 
1862, in lonkiitg from the summit down upon the flanks of the 
mountain in that direction. At all times of the year when seen 
by us, from lS(ln to i8G4, at a distance of fifty or sixty miles. Mount 
Shasta pres'^nted the appearance of a dazzling white cone when 
shone upon by the sun. The outline of the mass, as seen from a 
point fifty-three miles distant in a southerly direction, was that of 
an almost regular crme. growing slislltl.^■ steeper toward the sum- 
mit, and having a slopn of 2.V-27" on one side, and of .^O'-'-Sl* on 
the other, with a smaller, somewhat steeper, subsidiary cone on 
the western side. 

Mount Hood is a very conspicuous and grand mountain mass on 
account of its isolation, its regular form, and the extent to which 
it is covered with snow. It appears higher than it really is, be- 
cause it can be seen from a point only about thirty mites distant, 
which is but lirtle above the sea-level, and ^^here the fine scenery 
of the Columbia River and of the b-'saltic region adjtcent to it 
makes an admirable foreground. It is a fnvorite euhj-'ct for land- 
scape artists, and has been repeatedly climbed by tourists, the 
ascent being witliont special difficulty. The same may be said in 
regard to Mount Shasta. 

Mount Rainier, of which the aboriginal name is said to be 
Tacoma, is much less accessible than either Hood or Shasta, but 
has been climbed several times, and first in 187U by Me.-srs.Stevejis 
and Van Trump, of Olympia, Washington. As seen from the 
southern end of Puget Sound, at a distance of forty miles from its 
base, this mountain is an object of surpassing grandeur. It is of 
almost exactly the same height as Shasta, but is much more 
deeply and extensively covered with snow and ice than is that 
cone. As Rainier is in the midst of a tangled forest without 
roads, and almost without trails, it can only be reached by travel- 
ers fitted out with pack animals and camp equipage, and who are 
able and willing to bear the fatigues of camp life in a difficult 
forested country. So far as known to the writer, its higher por- 



tions have iKver been visited by any skillful photographer; while 
Shasta and Hood have been finely photographed from a great 
nundje of points of view by Mr. C. E. Watkins, of San 
Franci cu. 

On thr whole, these great isolated snow-covered vtdcanic cones 
ot iliei'acilie coast are, from tiie scenic point of view, the grand- 
e^t objects which this country p^esenl^. In the picluretque iffect 
which they prodnee they may be fairly plactd on an etjuality with 
anything which the Alps have to show, indeed, so lar liS an opin- 
ion '^aii he lelied on which is based on comparison of photogaphs 
oaly, these almost extinct volcanoes of the Ca.'Jcado Range must 
be fully as attractive from a scenic point of view as the higher 
ones of Mexico, and, perhaps, not much less admirable as scenic 
objects than the much loftier cones of South America, which all 
rise from very high bases, and of which the snow-covered portions 
seem but insignificant in extent as compared with the uncovered 
rocky slopes. 

^ Among the scenic features of the Cordilleras in the United Cranitio 
States there are two forms of rock masses which are, in certain masses, 
regions, developed to such an extent as to make them peculiar and 
exceedingly impressive as elements of the landscape. <.'ne is the 
pinnacled character of the granitic masses; the other the dome- 
shaped summits of the same rock. 'Ihe pinnacles are something 
like the Aiguilles of the Mont Blanc group, but in the latter tlie 
rock is chiefly slaty and not granitic. In parts of the Cordilleras, 
notably in the vicinity of Mount "Whitney; in a group of moun- 
tains called the Castle Range, near Mount Shasta, and in the 
Wind River Range, the granite occurs in the form ot alnn^st 
isolated pinnacles, or groups of pinnacles, which rise literally 
thousands of feet above the general level or crests of the ridges on 
whii?h they stand, so sharp and so vertical thot the descriptive 
term " spike " is one which involuntarily suggests itselt to the 
mind on seeiiig them. These pinnacles are, of course, too ste« p 
to^be covered by snow; but they rise often from great snow-fieh's, 
presenting a wondeiful appearance of mingled desolation ai d 
grandeur, and making, perliaps, as strong an impression on the 
mind as any type if mountain scenery rau. 

The dome structure of the granitic masses, so wonderfully ex- Yoscmite 
hibited in parts of the Sierra Nevada, is also a featuie of great Valley, 
scenic interest, and one which, so far as known to tlie writer, is 
not seen anywbere else in the world on so grand a scale. These 
domes are especially w( 1! exhibited in iher.gion just above ilie 
Yosemite Valley; and here also is that unique ftaiure of the 
scenery— one of those great, rounded, and exceedingly steep 
masses, rising almost five thousand feet above the adjacent valhy, 
and which has been split in two so that on the aide fronting that 
valley it presents an absolutely vertical face ot somewhat over 
fifteen hundred feet in height. 

Next to mountains, water-ftills, perhaps, offer the greatest scenic 
attractions, and the number and variety of form of those occur- 
ring in the United States is very great. Indeed, there are in the 
Cordilleras great numbers of water-falls which have been seen by 
explorers, hut which have never betii described or named; and 
some of tliese unknown localities are finer than any ot the much- 
visited falls of the Alps, or even of Norway. 

Among the well known and fn quently visited water falls, there Waterfalls, 
are thre-- which fb^serve .special notice— Niagara, the Shoshone, 
an<l the Yosemite Falls, 'ihe first is the type of a fall in which 
volume of water is the all-important feature. In the Shoshone 
fall, the vfdume of water is large, althoi gh greatly inferior to 
that of the Niagara: the height is cotisideralde.— somewhat greater 
than that of Niagara, — and the surrouiding scenery grand and 
entirely uninjured by the so-called "improvements" of civiliza- 
tion. The Yosemite fall, on the oihei- laml, is one in which tho 
volume of water is small, but the hught extraordinary, while tlie 
setting of the_ fall is surpassingly grand. Niagara is so well-known 
that des:cription is unnecrssary. It is the ore of the scenic attrac- 
tions of the country mo'^t fn quently visited, not only because it is 
one of the greatest ot the waier-falls of the world— only the Falls 
of the Zambezi surpavsing it in elevation and. perhaj s. in volunie 
— but because it is within a few bouts' easy ride of the Atlantic 
const. Tho Yosemite Valhy, wiili all its water-falls, is farther 
away from the East than the Shoshone Falls, but reallv much 
more accessible than the lattt r. which lies at a considerable dis- 
tance from any inhabited region. Among the entirely unvisited 
regions of water-fjills. that of the Onon ( f the Tuolumne River, 
a few miles north of the Yosemite Valhy, i>. perhaps, the most 
interesting. Here are falls and cascades of large volume and 
great height, set in the midst of the wildest and most roir. antic 
scenery — a region into \vhich hardly a trav ler has evi-r found his 
way. Very much the same may be said with truth of the region 
of "the Southern High Sierra adjacent to Mount Whitney, where 
we find many of the same features as those which characterize 
the Yo^i mite, and on almost as grand a scale as in this now very 
frequently visited and comparatively accessible locality. 

A most rematkable type of scenery, and one which combines Scenery of 
features equally interesting to the tourist and the scientific (\,lurado 
observer, is that of the plateaux of the Cordilleras, of which a without a 
brief account has already been given in the preceding pages The rival- 
cnnons of the Colorado and its branches, once so remote, have now 
heen brought comparatively near by the extension of railroads 
toward the Southwest, and the tide of pleasure travel is beginning 
to flow in that direction. In the peculiar tvpo of scenery which ia 
unfolded along the Colorndo, this country is wiihout a rival. The 
loess region of Northern China may be stranger and more unintelli- 
gible in the record which it presents of past geological events; but 
from a scenic point of view the tremendous canons of the South- 
ern Plateau region, with their many-colored walls, may unhesi- 
tatingly be included in the list of the earth's grpatest wonders. 

A portion of the country which has within the past few years 
b'^conie the resort of travelers in search of the picturesque, and 
which is now quite accessible by railroad, is the Geyser region of 



MINEIl.VL RESOURCES.] 



UNITED STATES 



Govenior 

Winthrop. 



the Yellowstone. Hero the sciintitiealty intercsuuK and the pic- 
turostiue unite to furni^ih ii tyi't- uf t^c^n- ry without ii rivnl of 
its kind, 3urptt^;>in*r iTi'ii ilu- nnw dvv.isied woiidvTlimd uf Now 
Zealand. The Vcllowsloi.e I*uik. ».> ii i^ fienuenlly iiilled, b.- 
cause reserved by thf I nilcd States n.id di-vuit-d lu imbhc ust' u,s a 
visiting Kiountt or I'lirK,. with the ulea of prou-ciitig it tioiu specu- 
latorv and uiischu-f-iuakoi>, was rarly known to >t>iuo nl ihf moru 
udveiuuiuus of thi- tin-hunuTS who roanu'doviT ihu iiiviii North- 
west; hut it IS only wiihin a ffw years that descrii'tiin.s of it 
have ht'OD published, and its extraordinary chiinicter so rk-arly 
I'siablished as to induct" truvtlors to undertake tht- lontj j(nirt:ey 
necc-sary for its ii.siiection. TluTnuiI springs in jjn al number. 
many of which aro ine iHTtodieally spoutinjf. or gey^T type: pools 
of hot \viitcr. buih large and small, the sides and bottoms of which 
art* li-ied with ihe most exqui>iioly and I'rilliniitly colored inicro- 
scoi-ic Vfg'-tutitin: n markahh* deptisits from the hot springs, some 
of which exhibit cuiious f'nuis. seen nowhiTo else, except in Asia 
niinorand in New Zealand, as it was before the volcanic eruption 
ot I.S^6; gnind luounlaiii sceiit-ry, with water-falls, lakes and deep 
cannns, whose wnlls iiro fantastically colond by volcnuic depo.-its 
and siilptiurtius emaDutions— these are the principal features of 
thfi Ytdr-wstone region. It can be naihed by the Nortliern 
I'acihc railroad, from a station on which r-tad, eail'cl liivinttstono, 
ten hundred and thirty-two miles fromfSt Paul, a bianch tiftv-one 
miles in length runs to Cinnabar, on the boundary lino of rhe so- 
called *' Vellowstone National Park." There are numerous ex- 
cellent photographs of this region, whi' h has also been finely illus- 
trated in a f'dio volume «ith chrotuo, lithographs from paintings 
by Thimi IS Moran. The geological antl .>^eenie peculiarities of the 
Yellowstone region have been fully elucidated in various United 
States lieoltgical reports, antl especially in a voluminous one by 
I)r. A. C Peale. included in the second volume of llayden's Re- 
port fi)r the year IS78. 

There is a type of scenery of a remaikable character well 
exhibited along the bise of the Kocky Mountains at various 
points, and esp'cially at a locality called the (lardcn of the tJods, 
near Pike's Peak, and easily aeeessiblq by railroad. Thoattraction 
here is the remark:? ble effect of theerosiou and withering of tho soft 
sandstones, which occnnn bedsof great thickness. Many fantastic 
shape>, sueh as eoUunns or tibehsks, of large dimensions, occurring 
either sinjily or in elu-ters, ami often capped in tho mo-.t curious 
manner by great ti:it ial>les of harder rock, are seen in tliis inter- 
esting region, indeed, all along the eastern base of the Rocky 
Mountains in Col .nulo are many strange and picturesque forms, 
parrlv th" result of direct uplift, and partly of erosion, which 
are alike interesting ro the lover of the picturesque, anil tho 
gtuil.nt of geology. The b)ng ere>ted uplits of .sedimentary rock 
worn itit'i curved outlines, au'l often <if grand dimensions, which 
chara -terize this region arc known by the familar n:iine of " hog- 
backs," and the region itself as the " hog-back country." 

Of th" scenic effect of the vegetation of the country, and ospe- 
ciallv its forests, notice has already been taken to as groat an 
e.xteat as space here permits. 

MINKKVL RF.SOURCK3. 

Iron ore was smelted at l-'alling Creek, Virginia, as early asH'>20. 
The raids upon the whites at this lime, made by the Indians, put a 
stop to the industry. From 1H13 to l*J71 tho business of smelting 
and lUHuufaeiui ing iron was successfully carried on at Lynn. 
Ma-ssaehusetts. About 17S9 there were fourteen furnaces and 
more than thirty forges in operation in Pennsylvania. 

Th*^ business of mininir for other metnls than iron wiihin the ter-- 
ritory of tho United Slates is of much more reo nt orit;m, 'I'o 
this statement, however, an exception must be made in reference 
to the metal copo* r, which had been extensi\ ely mined in ilic 
Lake Siip'Tior region long before the first visit of tho English to 
these shores. Inde d. so ancient are these workings that no posi- 
tive knowledge exits as to the people or tribes by whom they 
were executed. When the region in question was opened to the 
whiles for settlement in 1844. it was found that the copper-bt aring 
rocks had been mined through their whole extent along the south- 
ern sh'T' of Lake Superior, and even on the almost inaccessible 
island cnlled I il" Royale. There is no reason tosuppose that these 
ancient workine-. wh'ch in some places hid been carried to a 
depth of more thiin fifty feet in the solid rock, were known to the 
Indians iidiabiting that region at the time of the first vi^it of the 
Jesuit tathers in irt59-6": and the appearance of the excavations 
indicate-!, beyond possibility of doubt, that they had bten made 
long before thnt time. 

About the middle of the seventeenth C'ntury the metallif'-rous 
indications cotnmon in New England, and espceiallv in Connecti 
cut. engaged the attention of (iovernor Winthrop, by whom min- 
eralogieai notices of that region were sent to England and pub- 
lished in the Transactions of the Royal Society. 

Just at the beginning of the eighteenth century a Frenchman. 
Le Suenr, explored the region of the Upper Mis8issii>pi, and sent 
back to France, rock whicli he h'ld mined. supt>osiiig it to l)o an 
ore of copper; but it proved to b-itf no value. Later in 1719 and 
1720, the French again attempted to explore what was then calh'd 
the western portion of the country, along the Mississippi near tho 
junction of th<' Missouri: and poui.' mining of the lead ore. which 
at that time had already becotne known, was attempted. Tho 
preciou> metals beinir what was sought for. and there being none 
jfound in the region, the enterprise was soon abandoned. 

At the beginning of th<' present eotitury, as it appears from 
what has been stated all that had been done in the way of dis 
covering and developing the metallic wealth of the I'nited States 
was the mining and >nieltingrif the ores of iron, on a limited 
scale, in the Atlantic States, and a snnill production of lead in the 
mining region of Missouri. Exact statistics of these metals at 
the beginning of the nineteenth century are wanting. The 
amoant of iron nroduced in 1810 has been eetini&tcd at fiftv thou- 



sand tons; the production of lead about that time may h.ive been 
approximately tme thousand tons a year. 

.■\n event of great unporiance took plm-o almost inunediately Gold. 
after the value oi tiie l.at^e .Superior copper mining district had 
been fully oscertiiin- d. in the year 1M4. This was the demonstra- 
tion ot the fact that gold u.\isted in large quantities along tho 
western slope of the Sierra Nevada. 

The occurrence of gold on that portion of the Pacific coast, 
called by the Mexican-Spani>h Upper California, had liceii knwwn 
tor several years prior to its di>covery by immigrants fr<.m the 
United States and workings had been <-arri< d on lor this metal in 
the Coast Ranges, far south of the locality wheio it was di.-covered 
in IWS. 

The demonstration of the fact that over a vast extent of that 
distant country gold was to be had in almost unstinted quantity, 
as it at first— not without reasfm— appeared, hd to an extaordi- 
nary excitemeiu throughout the older States, and to an emigration 
from all parts of tho world toward tho newly discovered laud of 
gold on an unprecedented tcale of magnitude. 

COAL.. 

The area underlain by the coal-measures in the United States la 
very large, as will bo seen from the tollowiiig table, whieh repie- 
seiits aiiproximately the coal arirasof Carboniferous age cast of 
tho Cordilleran region That difEoronl porti<*ns of the area.v heio 
designated are of very ditfercnt value, as lesr'cets quality end 
quantity of coal, is oerbtin; and that portions of th ni do i ot 
contain coal-beds of sullicient tliickness or uf good enough quality 
to bo worked with profit, either at present or at any future tine, 
is also an undoubted fact, although these uiij>nKlucti\e portions 
are. except perhaps, in tho case of the Western and Michigan fields, 
of comparatively small extent: — 

Name of tho field. Area. Coal 

Rhode Inland 500 gq. miles, beds. 

Appalachian 50,165 

Central (Illinois Indiana, and Kentucky) 47,250 '* 

Western (Missouri, Iowa, Kansas. Arkansas and 

Texavt 78,4.0 

Michigan 0,700 *' 

Total 192,045 sq. miles. 

Of these fields the Appalachian is at present by far the most im- 
portant, and is likely to remain in this position for an indefinite 
period. The coal field of Khodo Island is not now, nor has it 
ever been. worke<l to such an extent as to bo of ^pecial importance. 
The Mieliigan coal-tield has also no present ^alue, the quality of 
the coal being inft^ri'r. and the cimditions not suth as to allow 
successful competition witli tlie coal of adjacent regions, 'lb© 
present rtdative inipoitance of the different Slates as regards iho 
production of coal and ihc yield of the various fields will be eabdy 
recognized from an inspi ction of the following table:— 

CoAi, PRnnrcKD m the Srveral States and Territories, not 

Including the Local and Colliery Consumption, and 

THE Value of the Mines in 1885. 



States and Territories 


18S2. 


1883. 
L^uft tone 

:il,79:i,027 
24.0OO.liu0 
lo,;,=>o.0oo 

H, 219. 429 
2,20i;,172 
2.2.W,0I 
•i.y.iih.hiA 
2,.'i60,00( 

3,iisi,:i00 

l,6'.(i,000 

1,00(),0(,0 

22:-),000 

ilOO,000 

13,'j,000 

10,00(1 

1,400,00(1 

200,( 00 

l,097,8.'il 

(HMM.'SI 

l.SS,703 

2.')0,(100 

17.'S,(I0« 

.'iO.OOO 

300,(!00 

100,(1(1(1 

7.5.1(10 

60,(iOO 

,')0,(i()0 

l(),()(i() 

17.i,('00 


1SS4. 


18£5. 


Pennsylvania: 

Anthracite 

liilumiuous 


L'ng tonn 
29,12(J,l.9(; 
22,IIU0,liMI 
ii,IJIl(l,lilH) 


L'ng tons 
:',o,71s,2yj 
25,li('0,(_00 
10.000,(01 

7,aio,('6-j 

2,4I9,0,S1 

2,."iOO,CC0 

3,(ill0.(0o 

2,2(0,(100 

3,i«'3.4.=.S 

l..--,'>0,(0(' 

l,2(iO,(>(0 

3(i0.000 

1,100,000 

135,00(1 

10,OmO 

2,0(1(1,000 

200,(l(!0 

1,(0,S,950 

80,5.911 

196,924 

2.tO.00(1 

1 50,0(0 

£0,0(10 

30o,( on 

100.000 
1. so (100 
6(1.(00 
31,2-0 
20,0( 
400,00(1 


Ln^g tone 
32,2&5 421 
23,214 »5 
S,742,745 


Ohio 

Maryland 


il.4.iO,ti(XI 
l,.'i4U,-(l.t; 
2.00(I,II(JO 
2.000,000 
1,076,470 
;). 127,700 
1,31)0,0110 
8.'>0.l'O() 
lOO.OOO 

7"iO,ijrio 

l.iO.POO 
10,000 
800,000 
17.i,0M 
947.749 

();ii,H:t2 

140,421 
2.''0,OI)0 
I,')0,0(iO 
,SO,l 00 
225.000 


6,978,732 
2,86,5.974 
2,7.50,0(0 


West Virginia 

Indiana 

Iowa • 

Kentucky 


3,008,091 
2,120,535 
3,.58:i,737 
1,700,000 
892,857 




5(">7.orO 




1 (182,230 


Michigan 

Rh'de Island 


45,178 




2,225 0(iO 




133,929 

l,210,7(i9 

720,828 


Colorado 




271,442 


Utah 


190 286 




(■>:t,942 




44.643 


Wnshinifton 


339,510 


Texas 


1.33.928 






1,^3,928 






77,179 






23,214 


Mnho 




893 


Indian Territory 




446,429 


Totals 


86,710,834 


96,823,198 


97„'il8,89ii 


95,832,705 



UNITED STATES 



[coal. 



states and Territories. '^'"Julnel'lSsi''* 

PenDsylvania: Anthracite *72. 274.544 

Bituminous 24,7UU,000 

I lliaois 11 .456.493 

< )hio ... 8.20(J,i)S8 

Miiryjand 3.2( 9.b91 

Missouri 8.85u,(ii)0 

West Virginia ^.^09.062 

Indiana 2,731,250 

Iowa 4.819.230 

Kentucky 2.094.400 

Tennessee 1 ,1^1,000 

Virginia 660,792 

Kansas 1.410,438 

Michigan 75,000 

Kh.-du I:^land 

Alabama 2,9^)0.000 

Gi!ur{;ia 180.000 

C.dnrado 3.051.590 

■\Vyumiug 2,421.984 

New Mexico 918.606 

U [ ah 426,000 

Cal ifornia 214.845 

Oregon 125.000 

AVa>hington 950.615 

Texas 3^ lO.OOO 

Arkansas 225.000 

M untana 302.540 

Dakota 91,000 

Idnho 4.000 

Indian Territory 750,000 

Totals $152,915,268 

Pennsyl- The commercial product, psclusive of that which is consumed at 

V inia an- t^® mines, known as colliery conf^umption. during 1885, was: 
thracite. Pennsylvania anthracite. 3fi. 137,272. short, or 32.2*35,421 long tons, 
the market value of which has been estimated to have been 
S>72,274..544 ; bituminous, brown coal, lignite, and small lots of an- 
thracite, mined in Colorado and Arkansas. 71.195,358 short, or 
fi3,567,284 long tons, Iht- nuirkct value of which has boen estimated 
to have been 38'l.fU0,724. making a total proiluctinn of ln7 ,332,629 
short .or 95.832,7115 long tnns. valued at S152.915.2HH. Thetotal 
production, including colliery consumption, was Pennsylvania an- 
thracite 38,335,973 short, or ;i4.22>^.54S long tons, all other coals 72.- 
621.549 short, or 64.84lt,h(iS long to!is, making the total absolute pro- 
duction of the coal mines of the United States for the year, 
lln.957.522 short, or 99.009,216 long tons. 

The coal areas of Carboniferous age in the United States are five 
ia number. They are:— 

The Massachusetts-Rhode Island area, comprising approxi- 
mately 500 square miles; 
The Alleghany area, about 59.000 square miles; 
The Michigan area, about 6.700 square miles; 
The Illinois. Indiana and West Kentucky area, about 47,000 
Bquare miles; and 

The Iowa. Missouri. Kansas, Arkansas and Texas area, about 
78.000 square mile.-; 

Forminga total of abtmt 191,200 square miles, underlaid by coal- 
bearing strata, of which not over 120,000 square miles contain 
workable coal-beds. 

Two general classes of coal are recognized, viz., anthracite and 
bituminous, the latter being often subdivided into bitumiuous and 
eemi bituminous coal 

Anthracite forms the whole of the coal found in the Massachu- 
6otts-Kh.ode Islnnd area and in that portion of Pennsylvania occur- 
ring in the neighborhood of Pottsville. Mahanoy City, Shamokin, 
Hazleton, Mauch Chunk, Wilkes-Barre and Scranton. It also 
occurs to a limited extent in Virginia. 
Bituminous coal o 'cupies the rest of the districts just named. 
A glance on a map of the coal-fields shows how unequally the 
coal areas are distributed over the United States. M bile Now 
England and the seaboard Atlantic States contain practically no 
coal, the greatest development of the workable coal strata is in 
the Alleghany mountains and to the west of them, extending from 
Pennsylvania and nhio m an unbroken line to Alabama. 

Next to the one just uientioned the most important field is the 
one occurring in Illinois, Indiana and Western Kentucky. The 
coal area which extends from Iowa to Texas is of much less impor- 
tance and extent, and the Michigan coal-field has scarcely been 
opened. 
Different The Massachusf.tts-Rhodf. Islano Area.— The coal isoonfined 

coalfields, to eastern Rhode Island and r»ristol and Plymouth counties in 
Massachusetts At present the only mine wnrked is at Ports- 
mouth. Rhode Island, where E one of the three bedsfound, is being 
exph)ited. The coal-bed-^ in this area sei-m to vary from one to thir- 
teen in number, but the i-xplnr:itionsmadein the past have been so 
unsystematic and pi-cuniarily. -^o unsatisfactory, that the data on 
which these views are founded are not very reliable. The char- 
acter of the coal is the hardest kind of anthracite, often containing 
Bpangles and plates of graphite disseminated through it. which 
characteristics are due to the highly metamorphic action it has un- 
dergone. To this same action is due in a great measure the pecul- 
iarly folded character of the deposits, whicli has locally caused 
cxt>ansions and contractions of the coal-beds, so that in some 
places they are thirteen feet thick, and in others but a few inches. 
Such an irregularity renders the cost of minintr th ; conl very grerit. 
owing to the large amount of " dead work " reiiuired. and to this 
cause may in part bi; ascribed the slight progress which has been 
made in the development of the region. The working is now con- 
6ned to a simple mine. 



The Alleghany Area, the most important in the United States Alleghenj 
in its extent in the number of workable coal beds and in ih ■ qual- area. 
ity and variety of the coals found, is situated in Pennsjlvania, 
Ohio, West Virginia, Virginia, eastern Kentucky, East Tennessee 
and northern Alabama. This area is dividetl into numerous dif- 
ferent fields, more or lesh contiguous to one another, aid of which 
a brief mention folhnvs: 

The Anthracite Coal-Fielus of Eastern Pennsylvania.— 
These anthracite fields are confined to a linjited area of not over 
475 square miles, situated in tlie counties of Carbon. Schuylkill, 
Northumberland, Columbia, Dauphin, Luzerne and Lackawarma. 
Three districts are CDmmouly leeognized in this region, known as 
the first, second and third i^oal-fields. The Coal Measurrs within 
this region are almost uni^■ersally surrounded by two mountain- 
ridges, the exterior one consisting of sub-Carboniferous sandstone. 
This is separated fr(»m the interior ridge by a valley, more or less 
broad, of easily decumposing red shale, overlying which occurs 
the true conglomerate, holding in its bosom the valleys or basins 
in which the anthracite occurs. These two series of ridges were 
the efiicient protectors of the coal from ihe denuding agents, which 
remdVid it frnm the intervening barn-u districts, separating the 
different anthracite basins from each other and from the bitumin- 
ous coal-fields of Central Pennsylvania. 

North of the anthracite coal-fields proper, is the semi-anthracite Semi-an- 
of the Bernice basin in Sullivan county, Pennsylvania, where the thracite 
principal coal-Iied, eight to nine feet thick, contains eight to nine beds in 
per cent, volatile matter. The coal, while classed as an anthracite. Sullivan 
lacks the brilliant anthracite luster and conchoidal fracture. gen- county, 
erally breaking in cubes; in consumption it closely resembles the Penn. 
semi-anthracite of Lykens Valley, in Dauphin^ county. The 
whole of this coal is carried North and West for distribution and 
consumption. 

The Bkoad-Top-Coal-Field ok Pennsylvania.— The coals of 
this basin, which occupies about twenty-five square miles, all be- 
long to the Lower Protective Coal Measures, of which more pres' 
ently. with the exception of a few acres of coal of the Pittslmrgh 
bed. The measures in this coal field have been much distuibed, 
so that the relations of the strata are not fully understood, and 
consequently frequent errors have been made in identifying tho 
coal in different portions c)f the district. There are apparently 
three workable beds. The coal of this district, while actually 
bituminous in ehiracter, is commonly called semi-bituminous on 
account of the ct.imparatively small amount of volatile matter it 
contains, often as low as eight per cent. At one time the mines of 
this district were actively worlied, the coal being used for steam- 
raising and rolling-mill purposes. Since the opening of the Clear- 
field cnal-district and the more active exploitations of the Cun;ber- 
land coal-beds, the mining interests of this district have lan- 
guished, owing in part to an inferiority in quality of this coat to 
either of the nthers: in part to the greater cost ol extraction due 
to the more disturbed cnndition of the strata. 

The BiTUMiNors Coal-Fields of Pennsylvania.— While the 
bituminous coal fields of Pennsylvania are contiguous to those of 
Ohio and West Virginia, the latter being nctually but extensions 
of the former, they are. for the sake of description, separated geo- 
graphieallv. 

In thi; bituminous coal area of Pennsylvania. Ohio and West 
Virginia geologists and engineers Inive recognized U) Upper Bar- 
ren Measures. (2) Upper Productive Coal Measures; (3) Lower 
Barren Measures; (4) Lower Productive Coal Measures; (5) Inter- 
conglomerate coals. 

The following coal strata occur in the Upper Productive Coal 
Measures, commencing wiih the upper bed : Waynesburg coal-bed, 
Sewickley coal-bed. Redstone coal-bed. Pittsburgh coal-bed. Of 
these the Pittsburt^h is of far the greatest econmical value, but the 
others are locally of ini]tortance. 

In the Lower Barren Measures are a few beds which are most 
uncertain in character and of litile economical value; they are 
most unreliable in character, and while locally they thicken, so as 
to be of some local value, they speedily thin out again. 

Below the Lower Barren Measures are found the following coal 
strata, viz: Upper Freepi'rt coal-bed. Lower Freeport coal-bed. 
Upper KittanninjT co-il-bed, Lower Kittanning coal-bed. Clarion 
coal-bed and Brookville coal-bed. 

Still lower, gei>lot:icallv. are the coals occurring in the dreat 
C(.nKlomerate, which include the Clarion group, C theguakertown 
bed of Lawrence county, and the Sharon bed of Mercer county. 
These coals occur in six different basins, of which the sixth is the 
most southwesterly in position and least distinct as to its division. 
Each basin is separated from its neighbor by an anticlinal wave, 
or rather by a series of separate anticlinals. the ends of which lap 
past each other. , , . 

Having the Alleghany mountams as an eastern barrier, the 
coal fields extend westwardly in a more or less unbroken succes- 
sion into Ohio. But ihe coal-beds are by no means equally dis- 
tributed over this area. As middle Pennsylvania and middle 
New York were lifted, by geological action, much higher above the 
oM sea-level than southwestern Pennsylvania. Ohio and \ irginia 
were* the destruction of the coal measure-^ has been greatest in 
the North and Nortiieast. gradually diminishing toward the Smith- 
west. Only the lowest, or two or three lowest, beds of coal have 
been left as isolated patches on the mountain tops of Wyoming, 
Sullivan, Lycoming. Clinton, Bradfoid. Tioga, Potter, Cameron. 
McKean and Warren counties. , , , , -, ^ 

The great proiluctive bituminous coal-held may be said to com*, 
mence in the belt of counties compo>ed of Clearfield, Jefferson. 
Clarion. Venango and Mercer counties— a distance of 140 miles to 
the Ohio line from the crest of the Alleghanies. In the counties 
last mentioned, as.well as in Cambri-i. Indiana. Armstrong. Hutler. 
Liiwrence, Reaver, Somerset (with the exception of the Salisbury 
patch), eastern Westmoreland, and eastern Fayette, only the 
Lower Productive coal-beds, and in places the inter- con glomer- 



PETROLEUM.] 



UNITED STATES 



ate ooiils havo been left, while the Upper Productive Meaaures 
hiivc l)i-fn .-iwei'l away. ThL-se liittrr are fuund in a great jmrt with 
ull the Lower l*roiim.'live (\ni\ Meiiaiire.'* in AllegUany, we.-;ti.rn 
^Vedtm^^reland and weslorii Kayetle counties, while the whole of 
the Upper and Lowrr Productive Measures oeeur in Wiijihingtun 
nnd (Jreenc eounties. In brief, the Coal Mtiisures aro moat 
©rod d toward the Northeast, and are least disturbed toward the 

EJOUC t\Test. 

The Ohio Thk CoAi,-Fip;i.ns of Ohio.— The Ohio cmMields are but the 

coal fields. Wfsiern extension of the bituminou" coal region ot Pennsylvania; 
con>eiiuentIy, the coal-beds which are ft»und in them are the same, 
wiih local modifications, as thuse of the bitter*'^tJito. Conunenciuk' 
at the IVnDsylvunia-Ohio lino we tlud that "the^marginof ihe cual 
basin forms a tortuous line, ooniniencintr in the northern pari "f 
Trumbull county, passing thenee soutbwcfterly to the iMuhoiiin« 
Valley, where it is 'leflecied far to the soutlieast. West of \ounKS 
town it runs thruigh th^* siuitluTU townships of Trumbull eounty. 
where it is deflected north nearly to the eentcr nf tJeautra county. 
where it inclos -s a long tongue and two or three small i>laiid'. nf 
cjal. Thence returninginto Portage.it pisses southeasterly thn-ugh 
the southern part of Summit, where it is detl -etcd to tht- nurth- 
west. Fnmi Here it runs southwesterly again f'> the southwi-st 
corner of Holmes. Thence it pa.tso'^ nearly southward along the 
western margin of Holmes and CosUncton; thi-nce southwesti rly 
through the eastern p:irt of Licking. From liere its course fur 
fifty miles is nearly south to the eetiter of ducking, where it turns 
("lightly westward, and pas-^es through Vinton. Jaekson. I'iki* and 
6ci->to to theOliio. whi're it erosses" into Kentucky. The counties 
m -re nr less underlaid by coal in <thio are -Mahoning. Cnlrmiltiuna, 
portage. Stark. Holmes. Carroll. Tuscarawas, Jefferson, Harrison. 
Belmont. (Juern-iey. Coshocton. Muskingum. Perry. Noble, 
Morgan. Wa-hingloii. Monroe. Meigs. Athens, Jackson, tiallia, 
LawT'-nce, Truiabull. Summit, Medina. Wayne. Licking. Hoek- 
iiig. Pike and Sciiito 
Virginian Tmk*(>al-Fi i.ns (tK Wkst Virginia and Virginia.— No State 
coalfields, in the Uaiou surpas>es West Virginia in the variety of coals it 
contains, nor doej* any contain an equal amount in proportion to 
its area: for, of the lift v-f our eounties in the State, but six aro 
entirely destitute '>f ihis iiunoriant fuel. In many of them, how- 
ever, the coal is 90 dt*eply buried, an. I in others the means of 
transportation are so inad' quale, rhat it will he many years be 
fore tne mineral wealth rhey contain will even commence to be 
developed. In Virginia, on the other hand, there are but six 
counties which coiitaiti coal of Carboniterons age. and they are in 
the extreme southwestern corner of tlie State, adjoining West 
Viririnia and Kentucky. The coal-field of West Virginia ami 
\'irk'inia is but an extension of the .\ppalachian coal fii'Id from 
Pennsylvania. .Maryland ami Ohio, and the genenil system of the 
measures, is the same, with the exception that locally some of the 
cofti beds in the Great Conglomerate are of a sutlieient thickness to 
be profitably worki'd. 
Maryland Thk Marvf. am* CoAi.FiEr.n. better known as the Cumberland 
coal field, coal basin, is but a prolorijgation <if the Potonnic basin mentioned 
under \Vest Viruinia This eoal tiild is one of the most important 
in the United States, due ro the tliickm-ss of the main bed, its 
good quality, and 'he large tmnmil produetion. The coal is most 
extensively used fur rolling mill and steam niising purpose-, its 
chief and only Comiretitor among the bituminous coals being that 
from the Clearfield region of Pennsylvania. This coal-field is an 
outlyer of the main Alleghany coal area, of %\hich there 
are several others in Pennsylvania, svich a.-J the Broad-Top, 
Snowshoe. Ralston and Blossburg basins. The eoal is semi-bituni- 
Snous in charaoter. and iloes not coke quite so readily as those 
which contain more gas. 

The Eastf.rn KKNTorKV Coai^tFikld is but a continuation of 
that described in Ohio and VVe<t V^irginia. The western bound- 
ary of the Allefihanv coal area in Kentucky is approximately ils 
follows, in a north S'>urh direction : Starting at the Oliio 
river near Tygart's en-ek. 'he line runs tlirough (Ireenur', <^irter. 
Rowan. .Morgan. Powell. E-itill. Jaekson. Laurel. Pulaski. Wavne 
and Clinton counties to the Tennessee line, Thi<eoal field un<ler- 
licsthe whole of fiftc-n c -unties and a portion of five others, con- 
taining S.i'S't square miles. The boundary line is very crouketi, 
throwing off numerous spurs, extending west of the line men- 
tioned. 

Thk Tknnksskk CoAL-FiKr.n is but a prolongation southward 
of the oostern Kentucky field. Its area is co-extensive with tliat 
of the Cumberland mountain or table-land. The Cumberhind 
tnounrain crospi-g Tennessee obliqutly, nnd although much in- 
dented by valleys and eoves. is nowhere eompletely cut in two 
by them. The eastern border of ih'n tabl ■ land i- comparatively 
ft nt-arlv direct or gracefully curving line, the indentations ma^ie 
by the streams on this si'le being se«rce|y noiieeable. It is very 
irregular, however, along its western b -nler. bing cut <'nt and 
notched by deep valleys and coves, separated fr on eiurli nth'T by 
long spurs jutting to the West. These dei-p imlenfations give the 
western outline a very rajrgod appearnnee, Mong the Kentucky 
line the eoal fit Id is about seventy miles wide, while it narrows 
along the .Mahama line to fifty miles. 

Thk 'Jkorc.ia Coal-Fiei-p.— The Tennessee coal-field west of the 
Pequatchie valley extends over the border into .\labama. and 
then soon dies out. That on th*" ea'^tern side of the valley, on the 
contrary, extends through Dafle. Walker and Chattongt counti'-g 
in (leorgia into Mnbama. Almost the whole of the former is 
underlaid bynn excellent quality of bituminous coal, while there 
is not quite such an extent of it in the other two counties. 

Thk Alabama Coai. Region is an extension southward of the 

Georgia into northern .\Iabama. It is divided into three fields. 

the Ulaek Warrior, the Cahaba and the Coosa. Of these three the 

fir*t is tnueh the Inrgest. 

The I1.LIS013. Indiana and West Kentucky Area— The coal 



measures of this portion of the United States form but one 
area. 

Thk Indiana CoalFikld.— The Carboniferous Measures occur 
in the counties of Pos.->ey. Vanderburgh, Warwiek, Spencer. Perry, 
Crawford. Ciibson. Pike. Dubois, Knox. Daviess. Martin. SulliTun, 
Ureene, Clay. Owen, Vigo, Parke. Vermillion, Founiain and War- 
ren; or. in other words, in the southwestern part of iIr> State. 
There are three beds of coking coal in this field, varying from 
four and a half to ten feet in thickness, and tliree seams of ojien- 
burning or splint coals that range from two and a hall to fivf feet 
in thickness, the average thiekness being four feel. One bed of 
cannel coal oecurs in Daviess eounty. about tour and a lialf ftet 
thick. The I'rincipal coals mined with this exception are the 
bloek coals from Clay county. 

PKTROLKUM. 

Petroleum has been known to exist in this country almost from 
its first settlement. The records of travels, espiemlly through the 
region west of the Appalaehian chain, in what wa> tlH-n known &s 
ih • Creat Ohio \ alley, coniain constant evidencey of the existence 
of this material in the reports of burning spring- and the oil that 
accompanied them. 

It wa-s not,, however, until 1859, at the time of the drilling of 
Drake's first well, that it began to assume any eon.mereial impor- 
tanee. 'I he excitement attending the discoveries in the Penngyl- 
Tania (dl field led to explorations in nuiny Suites, and developed 
the fact that petroleum existed in many iocoliiies. These locali- 
ties are chiefly on the western slopes *.( the Appalachian chain, 
reaehing from Petrolea in Ontario to just across the Tennessee 
State hnc in Alabama. Some quite e.xtensive fieldsare alsofound 
in California and in Wyoming, and later evidences of the exist- 
ence of oil have been discovered in other States, but the Appala- 
chian and the California oil fields are at present the only ones of 
commercial importance. 

The mo>t importimtof these fields are what are deseribed fur- 
ther on as the Pennsylvania and New York oil fields. Next iu 
importance to these is the Maeksburg field in Ohio, near Marietta, 
the thinl in importance being the California field. West Virginia 
(iroduces some small amounts of heavy oil for lubricating purposes. 
Us light iiil having been comparatively exhausted some years since. 
There are aNo oil fields ihat with better faeilities for transporta- 
tion might be of importance in both Tennessee and Kentucky. 
The W> omiitf,' oil fields described farther on in this report are also 
ot importanee in the amount of petr(deum that can some day be 
made available; but of this field, as of all others outside of the 
Pennsylvania and Ma<-ksburK regions, with the excA-ptioiLof Cali- 
fornia, it will be found that the expense of pioduring and trans- 
porting the (dl to market will effectually I'revent any great pro- 
duction in these fields until the price of Pennsylvania I'etroleum 
shall materially adxance. 

In the following table will be found a consolidation of the statis- 
tics of the production of petroleum in the various fields of the 
country, so far as the same could be obtained from the beginniDff 
of operations in these fields:- 





5 


?i « c^ c4 ffi .-^ M (>:' 'f 0' u^" (C ci cT c-i cr; r^ 






e 



1 


i M n n N N N ; ; ;s|| 

; I ! : . irf-c^ico 




< 
Q 








X -0 


6 



N N M M M ; M M M^ 




s 5 


i i : ; ; i i I i ; ; i i i i i^"^ 






S3 

>■ 


; ; ; ; : i i ; i : ; ; i : ; ;ils 

- ■ ■ * 1 ^ 1 : : : : : : ! : :m 















0^ 















UNITED STATES 



[natubal gas. 



PenDsyl- 
vania and 
N -w York 



California 
fields. 



Wyoming 
fields. 



^1' shins-- 
txn Holds. 



2 '^ S«5 
c S = t. 

tin S 



> 






2152 



Qor~-ic c 



■ >c i-~ 



_ ^ ?-i CO Oi 1~ C7i -T - _. 
jT — -^r-jaca^^io — lO 
■^ -T^ r^- — c; -f'"^ M ■-.-" cv 

—. — ■/? -c »• .— -f X "»H 

:c z^ :-l '^ M -i^ ?i 3? c^ c-a 
ic C5 '-C I -' — * *^ Tt" — ;r oQ 
r— ^c^cacooj!>j7gc^c>3 



c-i ic >f; *.D CO 'C o ^ -rr— 

C-t30.C30;CCCO = — *o 



rH T— I o5 CO ec 'X' 






I~ r-t -H '.C'-C CO '30 Q 1' "-• 

x' oT x -o — r r~* o'o ■^i oo 

CO'Tacoroco^O^iOarr— I 



C' r= o o C5 o o o C' o 



CO il-l-^ ■^" - ' vfc-J :0 X*U3 
•— j: c: CO z: — 1-- I- 1— .-^ 



X'araoa^X'COMXQOro 



More than 50 per pent, of all the oil produced in the Unit< d 
States is from the Bradford and AIIej,'haDy. fields, these two dis- 
tricts being credited with 11.099,512 of the 2l.842,(m barrel.^ pro- 
dueed in the country iu 18S5. The production in these fields, 
however, is kept up onI,\ by the liberal use of nitro-glycerine. and 
even with the use of explosivi-s to an extent before unknown the 
production is falling off, and it is a question if the vigor of these 
old fields cjiii be restored. 

From the time of th.:* first settlement of California by the 
whites there have been evidences, in the form of spiing and 
seepage from the asphaltum beds, -if the existence of petroleum in 
the State. No attempts, however, were made to utilize these 
deposits until the excitement following the Pennsylvania oil dis- 
coveries led to prospecting these surface deposits and the eager 
searching for others. During the years 1865 and 1866 upwards of 
seventy companies, each with a large nominal ciipital, were incor- 
porated in Californi.'i for the purpose of searching for petroleum. 
"While a majority of these companies proceeded no further than to 
organize, having never expended any money in aetua] operations, 
some of them began active operations, sinking wells and driving 
tunnels in their search. Most of the work at this time was iu 
Humboldt. Colusa. Contra Costa, Santa Clara, and Los Angeles 
counties. 

About IH75 the oil business in California took on new life. Two 
wells put down that year yielded some 15 or 20 barrels each per 
d'ly. Driliins by steam be:;an to be more generally used in place 
of the spring pole. In is"? the Ventura and the Pieo Canon wells 
produced daily SU and 40 barrels respectively. Some 2iJ barrels of 
refined oil were made daily at the Pico refinery at the latter place. 
The next year 60 barrels of crude oil were for a number ot days 
taken from the Boyer well, in the Santa Cruz mountains, every 24 
hours. The oil here, as in most eases in California, was brought 
to thf- surface by pumping, no flowing wells having as yet been 
struck in the State. 

From this time there has been a steadily increasing output of 
oil in ('ahfornia. 

There are. as far as now known, two oil fields in this State 
probably originally the same, but now diviiled by the range of 
mountains in which the headwaters of the North Platte and 
"Wind rivers find their sources. 

As yet no valuable deposits of petroleum or its concomitant 
asphaltum. have been found anywhere in the far west, except in 
California. Recently encouraging indications of mineral oil are 
reported to have been met with at Puyallup, in Washington. 

KATURAL GAS. 

According to Mr. Swank, natural gas was first used as a fuel in 
connection with the manufacture of iron and steel at Leechburg 
Armstrong county. Pennsylvania, in 1874, when it was tnken from 
a well twelve hundred feet deep, and where it at that time fur- 
nished all the fuel required for puddling, heating.nnd making steam 
at th*^ rolling-mill of Messrs. Rogers and Darchficld. Between 



1874 and 1831 the use of natural gas was introduced at various 
other e>tjiblishnTent- fnr p.iddling and rolling. The use of this 
new fui I -pre:id .-o rapidly, that in Ibh" there were ninety-six roll- 
ing-millb and steel works either wholly or in part using natural 
ga~; and Mr. Swank states ihat at the present time ntarl? one- 
fourth of :ill tht-- establishments id this kind in the United States 
are thus supplied with fuel. The territory in which are located 
irtu and steel works using natural gas extends as far east as 
Johnstown, seventy-nine miles east of Pittsburg. Some ^as is used 
in Ohio, piped from wills in the adjacent region of Pennsylvania, 
and some is also obtained from local wells. Pennsylvania gas is 
also used to a limiied extent in West Virginia. Natural gas has 
also been obtained at various localities in Indiana, 

According to Mr Ashburner.of the Pennsylvania Survey, there 
were, in 1SS5. no less than 1.500 dwellings, 06 glass factories. 34 roll- 
ing-mills, and 45 other industrial establishnn rits supplied with 
natural gis in the city of Pittsbnrg alone; and this was estimated 
as representing or displacing iin .amount of coal equal to ten 
thousand lonsadny. In the I nl lowing table is given the amount and 
value of the coal displaced by natural gas throughout the country, 
as nearly as it could be estimated, for the years 1885-87 :— 

Amount. Value. 

1S85 2,796.000 tons. S4.857.2l)0 

1886 5.761.000 " 10,012,000 

1887 8.800,000 " 15,838.5u0 

The rapid increase in the amount of natural gas consumed during 
the pist li w years is easily seen in the above table. The suri>ass- 
ing loipor ance of Pennsylvania in general, and of the Pittsburg 
District in pirticular. as consumers of this kind of fuel, nmi the 
progress which has been made in other States in the deveh pment 
of this branch of industry may be seen in the following table, in 
which the detailed statistics for the year 1887 are given :— 



Amount of Coal Displaced by Natural Gas. 



Locality. 


Coal Disrlacod. 


Value. 


Pennsylvania: 

Alkgiiany County 

Renutinder of Pittsburg Dis- 


4,890,000 tons. 
1.437.900 " 

r.e^s.ioo " 

7.931 ,UUO tons, 

94,fi00 " 

44-.iiiiO " 
.i3..iM(l " 

2i,s 0, n " 
2.,^iin " 
4.4(iO " 
4. 460 •• 


86,846,250 

2.415,750 

4.487,500 

$13,749,500 

.?33 000 


Western Pennsvlvania (out- 
side) of Pitt^bure District 

Total Pennsylvania. 


Ohio 


1 (If ■> 1,000 




1211 000 


Indiana 


000,000 




15.000 




15,000 






Total 


!<,Su4.520 tons. 


$15,838,500 



The development of the iron and steel business in the I'nited Iron and 
States during the last halt century has been as rapid as that of steel, 
the mining of coal. In 1S5U the total production of iron through- 
out the world was about six million tons, of which fully half was 
to be credited to Great Britain; that of the United States was 
about one million tons, or one-sixth of the whole amount. In the 
years from 1881 to 1887 the total production of iJig-iron throughout 
the world varied between nineteen and twenty-two millions of 
tons, averaging a little over twenty millions, of which about four- 
fifths were due to England, the United States and Germany. In 
the last tifteen years the proportional production v'^f England has 
gradually declined; for the five years ending 1885 it was very 
nearly five-twelfths, and in 1887 a very little over one-third of the 
total. England jind the United States together made in 18«7 very 
nearly five-eighths of the total. 

In regard to the geograpUieal distribution of special products 
the Special Agent of the Census of is.sii m eharge of this depart- 
ment—Mr. J. M. Swank— niakis the following' statement: 

" A glance at the statistics for lS8i» shows that New England 
now makes but little pig-iron, and that the South makes consider- 
able pig-iron and scarcely any rolled iron: that the West has 
largely enibarked in the manufacture of steel by the Bessemer pro- 
cess, while Xt^w York cannot boast of a single Bessemer establish- 
ment, but has iireferreil the open lieorth process; that New York 
maki-smostof th<' blooms that are made from ore, and Pennsyl- 
vania most of the blooms that are made from pig and scrap-iron; 
that Michig-in is the leading producer of charctial idg iron, and 
now makes no other kind ; that ^Vest Virginia has developed a re- 
markably active interest in the manufacture of cut nails; that 
only five States make Bessemer steel; and two States, Pennsyl- 
vania and Xpw Jersey, make nearly all of our crucible steel ; and 
that Pennsylvania has made a greater efifort than any other State 
to manufacture all kinds of iron and steel." 

At the close of the year 1HS7 there were 613 blast furnaces, then 
either completed or building (not counting any of which had been 
abandoned), in the United States, and they were thus distributed; 



NATURAL GAS,] 
Divisioa. 



UNITED STATES 



Subdivision. 



Number. 



f N'lrtli .Mlnnti'- ai.i 

Atlantic ■( .MiUdlu Atlauiie i'4 

L^joulh .\tluiuio 6 



Norlht'a^torn Coiitnil.. 147 

Noritiwostfrn Ct-ntral.. 13 

."^jutlu'iv^liTn Ci'iitnil.. 71 

Siiutliwo.-UTii Ci'ntrnl.. 2 



CkntR.11. 



Total. 



375 



233 



I Itioiiy Muuutain 2 

CoRDlLLER.lX-l I'l ilcau U 

I I'ai'ilio Coast 3 

Total 8 ~6ir 

Of tho 613 bla-t furnicoB, 243 wore in Ponns.vlvania, Ohio com- 
iiiK next in nrdiT with swonlv-ciKht. in tlic Northern Mates 
th.ro wereJ.W; in the .■'outhoni VA. ■>f which forty-four were in 
.'\lai»iiun iiivontvf.inri'Oinpleti'd iuid twenty building). Of 414 
iron uiid steel rolliuK mills, lB9\vero in I'ounsylvanin OhiocomiuB 
nox! with hltv five. Of Bessemer and Cliipps-Urifliths steel 
works ther.' wiTe I'oitythree.of which nineteen wore in I'ennsyl- 
vania:indsix in lh> Sonthem .'^tiites. Of open-hearth steelworks 
there wer.'fiftv, of which twenty-seven were in IViinsylvunia and 
two in tho Southern .States. Of oruoihie steel works there were 
forty one, of which twonlyono wore in I'euiisylvauia. and two in 
the Southern ."^tatos. 

The prodnciion of pit' iron and of liessemer steel jnj-'ots and 
mils in the United -rates since 1880 is stated in the followiuK 
lahle. compiled fr. in tho statistics ooUooted by the American Iron 
tiUd S:eei Association : 



1881. 1882. 

PiB-iron 4.141.253. . .4,625,323. 

li'.sseiuerstocl ingoLs. 1,374.217. .l.-il4,087. 
liessemer steel rails . 1,187.769. . .1,284.061). 

1SS.5. 



18.S3. 1884. 

.4,59),510... 4.097.868 
.l,477,:M.')...l,37.i.:U7 
.1,148,769... 9a6.4(;5 

1SS6. 



Pia-ir.>n 

B -sseiner steel ingots. , 
B'Ssoiuer steel rails... 



1887. 

.4.0(l,.i26. . .5.r.S3.329. . .6.417.148 
.1..51il.426. . .2,2«1.190. . .2.3%.U,i3 
. '.159,470. . .1,.'^62,409. . .2,101.90.) 



From the above table it will be seen that 1.8S2 and_ 1SS3 were 
yoirs of larffo production, b >th of iron an<i steel : that in 1884 and 
"l8S.S. there was a considerable jallint; off in the amount of pig-iron 
made, while the production of >teel remained nearly tho same; 
nud it will also bo noticed that in 1S86 there was a larg^ increase in 
hob i.-on and steel, whicii increase was continued in IS87— the 
production of the latter year being more than a million and a half 
of tons greater than it wa.s in 18S4. Theincrea-^eduse of Bessemer 
steel for purposes other than the manufacture of rails is alsj 
clearly indioited in the following table: — 



Producti.in of Bessemer steel... 
Pcrc utage used in rails 



1882. 
,.514,687. 
So.. 



1883. 1884. 

.1,477,.345... 1,375,317 



188,'i. ISSe. 1897. 

Pr .d .cti'm of Bessemer steel 1,519.426... 2,2S»,190... 2.936,033 

Peice.itage used in rails 63.... 78 72 



The production of Bessemer steel was forty-nine per cent, 
larff r in ISHo than it was in ls85. and 29 per cent, larger in IS87 
tha.i ill 1>'.S6. The total nuinhcr of completed Bessemer steel 
works in the Unite^l States at the close of 1*^6 was thirty- 
three, with_si.\ty-nino converters Pennsylvania in that year 
ma<le fifty-nine per cent, of the ingots produced; Illinois, 21; and 
other States, 20. 

The rapid growth and present importance of the steel industry 
in the United ."-tales will be appreciated on examination of thefoj. 
lowing table, in which tho amount of steel of all kinds, produced 
is t'lvcn for each fifth year from 1870 on, an also for the years 1886 
and 1.S87, in tons: 



Year. 



1S70. 
IS75 
ls8i. 
188.1 
ls8(; 
1887 



Bessemer 
steel ingots. 



37..inn 
.■)3.i.2<3 
1.074.261 
1.519 4.S0 
2,269.191 
2,936.033 



Open-hearth 
steel ingots. 



l.ilS 
s.e^o 
liKv'.VI 
133.S70 
218.'i73 
322,01.9 



Crucible 
steel iugots. 



All other 
steel. 



35.-79 
I4.i'i4 
.•.7..V. U 
7I.9T2 
7.i,.:76 



31,250 



11,256 
7..5;5'i 
1.514 
2.366 
6.593 



Year. Total. 

]87n 70.08!) 

1^75 anil.?!* 

18sn ] ,247.;a4 

1885 I.7II.!l!) 

IK-vi 2.562.502 

18'i7 3.:i3!i,671 

Production T''" production of rails of all kinds in the I'toted States is given 
of rails. in the following table for the year 1867, i.i which the manufacture 



of liessemer steel rails began, and also for 1870 und for each suo- 
ocoJing fifth year, as well ae for the years 1S86 and 1887: 



Y'car. 


Bessemer 
steel rails. 


Open-hearth 
steel rails. 


Total 
steel rails. 


Iron rails, 
all kinds. 


18i'.7 . . . 


2.277 

3o.:'.57 

2.5li.6<l;l 

8.52. 196 

!i"'!i,471 

1..7i.7.ti 

2,101,90! 




2,277 

30.3,7 

2.9.6!i!l 

864 ..352 

9":i.7.50 

1,579.391 

2.119.048 . 


410.319 


is:i) 




,5ii.21-; 






447,909 


l.S,-iO .... 
h-5 

IS-6 

18*7 


12.1.56 
4. 279 
4.1.91 

17,145 


440,858 
13.227 
21.142 
20,591 



-.-„ „ Totni iron 

lS(i7. 41 2..^l't) 

H~u ;V>;i, 171 

1H75 7ii7,0''0 

1 SSn 1 .31 .').2 1 1 

1 NS.') \i~< >.1'77 

1 biH\ 1 .(>Ui t.Mti 

18^7 2.i.jy.tj;i9 

Th-- ore.'* (if iron are wiiltly disseminatcil over the Vnited States Genenil 
iinduix'iyf ery tt.ffoieiit (lualities; but then; ii re certiiin regions survey "f 
ot t:iviitly piniuiuiuatiiig uiipori)ince, iiiul coiinin giMilogioil hori- variou.-^ 
ZI.HIS or foniiation> from \\hic-li mut-h thi* IarK<'r pirtioii of these kinds of 
orfs is derived. To each of the.^e a few words of descrii)tion may iron ore. 
bo devoted. 

The great coal field of the Central United States is .surrounded 
on the nnrtli. east and south by the uplifted older rncks of the 
\Visconsiu— Michigan, the .Appalnebian and the Ozark regions. 

This b.l^in and its border contain the fuel and the ore on which 
and with uliieh the material prosperity of the I'nited State.-' of the 
twentieth century nmst be built. Ilbeeiimes. therefore, of impor- 
tance to obtiiiu a general survey of the distribution of the variouB 
kinds of iron ore both geographically and in the geoh-gieal 
column. 

On the oxtremi' edge of the border that inclo.«ie.'5 the c*>al basiti 
we find in the nortti and east tin- Areha'iin with its immense de- 
velopment of magnt'tic' an<! specular ores. >e.\i within this and 
overlying it is the Canadian-Cumbrian series, the sulistructuro 
of the tir>t great Inngitudinal valhy of the Appalacliians extending 
from Ciinada to Alabama. This valley is not les.srenuirkp.ble for it** 
enormous we;ilth in limonite ores than for the firtility and dura- 
bility of its soil. Mill farther inward th-' shales of the Clinton 
ajie mark a In-lt of hematite ore extending from central Alabama 
to and throutih eastern New York, and thence westward across tho 
State. 'I'he Ijelt thus outlined will be seen, on the map. lo have a 
breadth of from fifty to over one hundred miles. \Vithin it. but 
le8s persistent in longitudinal representation, are deposits of iron 
ores occurring— .^ome here, some there— in strata of nlmogt every 
age !rom tlie Archjvan to the Coal Measures, and the great coal-field 
thus iron-bound, is itself rich in carbonate ores, generally occurring 
either as clay imn ston'-, or as black band, or in places as a ferri- 
ferous limestone altered to limonite. The uiapdoi-s not ari-nipt 
to represent the actual distribution of the OM-s of the Coal Meas- 
ures, but only the areas within which they were sampled for tb*3 
investigation. 

On the South tho Arehjvan rocks come to the surface only in 
eastern Missouri, and they here exhibit a grt-at develoi>meut of 
miignetic andspecularores. But they occupy only a small area in 
the broad iron-bearing belt on the map tliat stretches with a 
breadth of one hundred miles or more northwesterly from Alalmma 
to western Missouri. With the exception ot the Missouri Archa'an 
OP'S this belt consists wholly of later ores, viz: specular and limo- 
nite ores of th" Cambrian in Mi>>ouri. and limonites on the Sub- 
carboniferous limestones of Missouri, Tennessee and Kentucky. 

On the North, far removed from the coal-field, are the extensive 
and numerous d'lKisit^ of rich 8i>ecular an-l nnignetieons of tho 
Huronian in nnrtheru Minnesota andnnrthern Michigan. Farther 
eastward tlio northern border is represented be^vond our field of 
investigation by ores of different kinds, but especially Arclnrnn in 
that part of tho territory of the Dominion of Canadii lying north 
of the great lakes. 

Iron in various mineral conditions, and especially as an oxide, 
is among the most widely disseminated of the elements. It is a 
i>ase with a strong aflinity for the acids most frequent in tho 
waters circulating in ihenppercrustof the earth, viz: carbonic, sul- 
phuric and the organic acids. It also has a stronger atfinity for 
oxygen, and in the presence of this it ftirms the nearly indestruet- 
iblo and — in the oriiiiniry processes of Nature— in the absence of 
organic matter, almost inM)luable sesf|uioxido. As a sesquioxide, 
in the presence of organic matter, it provides the oxygen for 
decay, and its residuary protoxide is itself dissolved by the result- 
ing organic aeid. and outers into circulation. If the laboratory is 
a niar.-h or pond, the iron nrorosalt is reoxidiz. d nt the surface of 
the wat'T and returns to tne bottojn as the high r oxide to again 
P'itt with part of ilsoxvgen and again to be dissolved as a protosalt. 
iind this is cmtinued until the organic matter is consumed: then 
the iron accumulates on the bottom as a hyclrated oxide, or limo- 
nite. or " bog ore." 

Kock strata cont^iininp 'irganie matter and diffused iron oxido 
have lived thriMigh ^imilf pr>c<s.»es, except that the iron, after 
furnishing its oxy;:cn to the (!ec;iying matter and forming a sola- 



UNITED STATES 



[statistics. 



A raorioan 
iinporla of 
iron and 
steel. 



able protosalt with the resulting organic acid, has entered into 
more extended circulation. 

The most common solvents of iron in Nature are carbonic acid 
and sulphuric acid; the latter becomes an imijortaut agent in 
moving and concentrating iron, under certain circumstances, as in 
Eolfat-iric action and in the oiidation of pyritiferoua nick.s like 
the Devonian shales of Pennsylvania and Virginia. But doubtless 
carbonic acid is the most general agent. Besides arising from the 
oxidation of organic matter cuntined in sedimentary strata, it 
enters the earth as an accessory of rain water, and more is taken 
up by the water from the decaying vegetable mould: it is also lib- 
erated in depth from limestone by the action of chemical processes 
and enters the ascending euirents. However formed, it becomes 
an accessory constituent ol the water that permeates the rocks, 
and alone, or in connection with other agents.it decomposes the 
silicates and carries off the iron as a bicarbonate. It follows the 
channels of flow until it reaches an arresting cause. One such 
arresting cause, of ultimately great economic importance, is the 
carbonate of line in limestones and dolomites and calcareous sand- 
stones, resulting in the renlacement of lime by iron; another of 
equal importance is oxygen, whether at the surface .where the 
soluahle iron protosalt, emerging in spring water is oxidized to a 
limonite, or in caverns or small cavities, where it is oxidized, and, 
parting with its acid, is deposited in successive thin films to form 
stalactitic and mammillary masses of hvdrated sesquioxide; there- 
fore when we consider the general diffusion of iron in both de- 
trital and crystalline rocks, in all sediments and all eruptions, and 
remarkable reciprocating relation in the most common and essen- 
tial processes of Nature, it is not strange that we should find 
it represented by local accumulations in the rocks of every geo- 
logical age. 

The annexed table, publi-hcd by Mr. Swank, shows the pro- 
duction of iron ore in tons in the leading ore-producing districts 
for the years 188«. 18.7:- ^^^^^ ^^._ 

Lake Superior mines of Michigan and Wis- 
consin 3,263.961 4.344.6.51 

Vermilion Lake mines of Minnesota 3U4,396 394.2.=)2 

Missouri mines 379,776 427.78.5 

Cornwall. Pennsylvania ft88.054 667.21tj 

New Jersey mines .'ill|l..S(ll 547.889 

Chateaugav mines. New York 214,sii0 219.390 

Crown Point mines. New York 60.1184 64.940 

Port Henry mines. New York 298.868 428.522 

Other Lake Champlain mines. New York.. . IS.OtIO 29,000 
Hudson River Ore and Iron Company. New 

York "5.000 142.422 

Tilly Foster mines. New York 17.728 14,316 

Forest of Dean mines. New York 18,000 21,164 

Salisbury region. Connecticut 36.000 30.000 

Cranberry mines. North Carolina 24,106 45,032 

Tennessee Coal and Iron and Railroad Com- ^ 

pany's mines 81,650 102,601 

Ohio (whole State) 344,484 377.465 

Alleghanv County. Virginia ,9 ,1!L 

Preston County. West Virginia 15,408 

Calhoun. Etowah, and Shelby counties, ,„„„„„ 

Alabama 129.000 

Total of the above districts 6 322,408 8,151,047 

American Imports of Iron and .Steel.— It has been suffi- 
ciently shown that this country is a hirge producer of iron and 
steel. The stiitistica of our production of these articles do not, 
however, show the magnitude of their consumption by our people. 
We export onlv very small quantitiesnf iron and steel, principally 
in the form of maehincry. but have been large importers of iron 
and steel in all forms, which we have consumed in addition to 
the large quantities we have ourselves produced. Our imports of 
iron and steel during the Inst fifteen calendar years have been as 
follows. The quontities of pig, bar, band, pin te. and sheet iron, 
rails, old iron, and tin plates, are given for every year mentioned 
and for 1882 ard succeeding years the (luantities of other iron and 
steel which could not be obtained for preceding years are added: 



Oold and 
silver. 



Y'ears, 


Long tons. 


Years. 


Long tons. 


1871 


1.141.933 
1,183.066 
640.8.58 
301.647 
239 712 
2»4 211 
2U,4os 
211,102 


1879 


769.984 


1872 


1880 


1.886.919 


1873 ... . 


1881 


1.180,749 


1874 


1882 


1.192.J96 


1875 


18S3 


691.. 330 


1876 


l,8-;4 


654,696 


1877 


18S5.. 


578,478 


1878 











The proiluction of gold in the Southern States rose to nearly a 
million of dollnrs a year in a few years after th"' first mining ex- 
citement began in that region. This wns in 1^31 and ISiii Then 
there was a falling off to about hiilf that; but from lS42on.nntiI 
the lime of the discovery of gold in ralifornia by the Americans, 
there was a rise in the product of the Southern Appalachian n gion 
to nearly a million a year (184'2-48). 

The discoveries of the precious metal in California have already 
been noticed. By the end of the year at the betrinniiig nf which 
the first nugget of gold had been picked up in Sutter's niili-raco 
on the American River (184->). miners were at work along the 
western slope of the Sierra Nevada from the Tuolumne to Feather 
River, a dietanoe of full a hundred and fifty miles. There are 



supposed to have been not less than fifty thousand men mining 
for gold at the close of the year 1850; and those who had good 
opportunity for observing estimate the number thus engaged 
during the'years 18.')2 and 1853 at not less than one hundred thous- 
and. At first Home at-sistance wuf had from the aboriginal popula- 
tion; l>ut in general there was no hired help, each man working 
for him^^elf, or a small number of persons owned the same claim 
and mined together as joint partners. The earliest- washings 
were along the rivers, on the "bars," or gravel accumulations 
along the sides or on the beds of the streams, and in the "gulches," 
or ravines leading down the steep side.^ ot the valleys, or canons, 
through which these rivers flow. Soon the rivers themselves were 
partially turned from their courses by means of wing-dams, or 
entirely carried to one side of their natural channels by ' flum- 
ing," or building artificial channels of timber. The ^ands and 
gravels thus exposed were the most protluctive "placers": and 
those who first go' hold of the rich bars on the American, Yuba, 
Feather, Stanislaus, and other smaller streams in the heart of 
the gold region made sometimes from one to five thousand dol- 
lars a day per man. These very rich spots were, however, 
soon worked out, and it m'ight be days or weeks before another of 
equal richness was found. From the spring of 1848 to 1851 nearly 
al! the mining was of the character thus indicated, that in the 
river-beds being called **wet-digtrings." and that in the ravines or 
gulches adjacent to the rivers "dry-diggings." 

The yield of gold in California during the ten years of its great- Yield of 
est i)roductiveness— namely, from 185U to lhF>9 inclusive— has been gold in 
estimated as averaging as high as 58^ millions of dollars a year. California. 
During the pentad, l8(i(Hi4, there was a rapid falling off in the 
yield, which may be accounted for not only by the approaching 
exhaustion of the river diggings, but also by the fact that the dis- 
covery of the Comstock Lode turned the attention of the miners 
in the direction of Nevada, whither great numbers of stamp-mills 
were transported iiodily in the course of the years 1861 and 1^'62, 
these mills being such as had been worked in California with little 
or MO profit to thi' owners. 

From 1SH5 on, the gnid mining business in California assumed 
a certain degree of permanence; at least, the yield of the precious 
metal became, for a number of years, pretty nearly statinnary, 
never falling below fifteen millions, nor rising quite as hit-'h as 
twenty millions; the average for the fifteen v t- a rs. 18(35-79. heing 
about seventeen millions. The figures for the years 1881-87, as 
given in the reports of the Director of the Mint, are as follows: — 

18H1 818.2(10.(1(1(1 

1882 IH.^Od.liliO 

18H3 14.120.(100 

1S84 I3.i(i(>.)i00 

1885 12.7i'(t.(iOO 

1886 14.725 000 

1887 13 41 '( 1,000 

The most powerful impulse to mining operations, and the im 
mediate cause of a somewhat lengthy period of wild exeiti ment 
and speculation, was the discovery and succe.-sful opening of the 
so-called (\)mstock Lode— a metalliferous deposit, which, consid- 
ering all the circumstances and conditions connected with it, may 
be truthfully said to be the most interesting one ever disC'Vered. 
The conditions which have given this h>de its pre-eminence are: 
the great extent and depth of its workings; the rapidity with 
which they have been carried on ; the large amount of the precious 
metals produced; the extraordinary temperature encountered; 
and. finally, the very full record which has been kept of the facts 
observed. 

Thel^omstock Lode lies on the east slopf of the Virginia Range. TheCom- 
a northeasterly offshoot from the range of the Sierra Nevada. The stock 
region is a desert, supporting scarcely any vegetation besiles the Lode, 
sage brush. Potable water is found only in quantities too small to 
supply a settlement, and the town now depends for its supply on 
a point in the Sierra Nevada, thirty miles away. The mines were 
first openi d in this inhospitable region in 1859. but have since 
been pushed with such vigor that their product is supposcfi seri- 
ously to have i}ff -'ted the silver market of the world. They have 
produced abouf. S315.U0O.Oi worth of bullion, of which S175.0i'0.o0O 
was silver 'at the rate of one ounce equals 31.292!'). Of the total 
yield. $115.871. Oi;0 has been disbursed in dividends. 

The last great ore body discovered yielded ^111,707,609 39, of 
which S74 2.50.000 was paid in dividends. The number of men em- 
ployed in the mines on June 1. ISsO, was 2,770. and the sum an- 
nually disbursed in wages is now S4,55".00O. The aggregate horse- 
power of the machinery of the mines is 24.130. The total length 
of shafts and galh'ries exceeds 150 miles, and the greatest depth 
reached is above 3.000 feet. 

The gold regions of the United States are divided into three sec- 
tions, the Pacific. Rocky Mountain and Eastern- These three 
great divisions will be taken up and treated in order. 

STATISTICS OF THE PACIFIC DIVISION. 

In production of gold California still holds the first place. The CaliforniT 
vast deposits of auriferous gravel continue to yield largely, tiiough 
their final exhaustion in view of the enormous hydraulic opera- 
tions now being prosecuted, is to be looked for at no distant day. 
Pervinus to the discovery of the Rodic district the placer mines 
furnished more than two-thirds of the total gold output of the 
State : but the large yield of that district, amounting to over two 
and three-fiuTter millions in gold during the years in addition to 
the considerable silver product, has placed the deep mines about 
on a par with the placers in point of productiveness. 

California furnishes 71.47 per cent, of the total placer product of 
the United States, and 40.09 per cent, of the total gold product of 
the deep mines, or 51.38 per cent, of the gold product of 
the country (from all sources). _ , 

The proiluciinn of this State shows a considerable decline, as JNevaaa. 
compared with that of the preceding six years. This is not due to 



STATISTICS ] 



UNITED STATES 



any general fallinK off in the prosperity of the mining industry 
of tno r^tiito. but to the ileL'rea.-o in iho yield of the loading 
aouroo. ihLi Conistook L^Ui'. 

The bullion product of Noviida represents nu avernpo of 8^4 IG 
gold. ;il2.'J9 silver, iind Sloi).4-') Rold iind >ilver for laeh .>*(|uaro 
mile of ii;t area. In this respect Nevada is surpassed by t'oloiudn. 
the figures for which are 825.98 gold, Jlo9.22 silver, and SIS5.20 
total. 

Utah and The bullion product of Utah is n'markably steady, varying lat- 

Arizoua. ti-rly but litilo from year to year, while a marked impulse has 
bi'on given to the mining industry <»f Arizona by the fine showing 
of the new Tomlist«<no district, in Pima county. 

Idaho. The deposits of Idaho bullion \so far as it is possible to segre- 

gate them, a very large portion having passed through private re- 
fineries and thus lo^ii g ihoir i<ientit>) up to the ihtse of the ti^cal 
year ending June .'-Ki. isSU, arostjited by the diroi-lnrof the mint 
to have been S2-1. 137.417 gold. S7:i7.2% >iher. and S24.8ti4.713 total. 
This amount is far loss tlian the actual output U[> to that date. 
vaKUt3 unofficial estimates placing the total yield as high as 
SiKi.nlKi.ixm. 

Of the gold product for the census year 1880, .')9.42 per cent, is 
from placers and 4ii.5S per ceut from the deep miiios. Idaho fur- 
nishes 7.32 Iter cent, of the placer output of the Unit'd f^tates, 2 18 
per cent, of th<' de. p mine gold, and 4.43 percent I'f the total b'old; 
1.13 iior cent of the .-ilver, and 2 i)<» per cent, of the entire pro.iuct 
of tiie pffcious metals in the whole country. As a gold producer 
the territory ranKs .-ixth. and in silver, seventh. The average 
yield per square milo is S17.4-S gold. S'>.3U silver, aiidS2-.7o total. In 
(his respect Idaho stands fifth in point of gold, seventh in sih or, 
and sixth in developed riehntss in gohl and silver. 

Oregon. Oregon is one of the oldest of the western mining States, the 

di>covery of gohl wiihin it-* limits having followed closely ui)')n 
that in California. Itsoutput has never been very large in com- 
parison with the yield of its neighbor State, but althuuk'h the 
mines have become secondary to its agricultural resources in point 
of imptirtanee, tht-y still furni>h uecunation and profit to many <if 
its tnlia))itni»t«. The quartz veins of Baker county, in the eastern 
portion of the State, adjoining Idaho Territory, continue to yield 
the larger portion of the total deep mine product of this State. 
The prevailing type of the Dregon ores is a freo gold quartz, 
though rebellious gold ores, requiringspecial treatment, are found 
in si>nio localities, and a small amount of silver is produced in 
Grant county. 

Of the small product reported from the deep mines of Washing- 
ton, neariv the whole ooiiks from iV'shaston district, in Vakinia 
county, wh' re gold (inaitzniining is conducted on a small scale. 

The Upper Columbia placers furnish over oue-half the total 
placer yield of tiie State- 

This vast territory, occupying an area of over half a million 
square miles, is for the most i»art siill an unexplored region. The 
small nmouul of prospecting wiiieh iia-; b''en done has developed 
the fact that Alaska contains many gold-bearing localities, none 
of which however, have yet yielded any considerable output. 

BTATISTKS 1>F THE PIVISIOX OF THF, ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 

From an average annual production of only three or four mil- 
lions, Colorado lias suddenly risen to the first rank as a pro- 
dueerof the precious metals among the States and Territories for 
pold 'ind silver combined, as well as foi' silver alone, while for gnlit 
It liolds the fourth rank. In thi; re'atiou of production to area it 
holds the first runk likewise for gold and silver combined, and for 
silver alone, and the third for gold alone. In the relation 
of production to population, however, it ranks only third for 
gold ami silver together, second for silver alone, and sixth for 

• goM alone. The total value of its product during the eunsus year 

in g >!d and silver was. in ri>und numbers, nineteen and a -luarter 
niilli 'n dollars; and. if we add to this the value of lead and copper 
in crude metal produced, we have a total value of metallic product 
of twenty-two and three-quarter^^ million dollars. 

I'akota. Tho metall'cp-oduetion of Dakota is derived from the region of 

the Blaek H ilU. and in greater part from Lawrence county, where 
free milling gold ([uartB ores of low grade are reduced in amalga- 
mating mills of great size. 

Montana. MonUma has within its boundaries the elements favorable to a 
large produetitm of the precious metals— rich and varied ores and 
abundant find, both coal and wood. As yet. however, owing to 
lack ttf develoiiineiit an<l want of suffieient transportation facili- 
ties, it has not taken its proper rank as a producer. 

Xew Mex- Tho mines of New Mcxieo niivo been attracting much attention; 

ico. but their I'ractical development is awaiting the completion of the 

railroads whieh are about to intersect it. ^ 

Wyoming. Wyoming is surrounded on three sides by important mining 
regions, but has as yet developed but few mines within its 
borders. 

The following table shows the yield of the States of the Eastern 
division, for the year IS-iO : — 

FASTRllK DIVISION. 



Wttshing- 
tuu. 



Alaska. 



Colorado. 





$1,300 

81.(1.30 

3.000 


8332 
7.2"ii 

16.i«l 
140 
56 


J I. ,300 




M..3(i2 




10.200 


Michitran 


2.'i,H.T8 




i'l.OOO 

11K.9.V. 

13.041 

1.99S 

9.322 


27.0fi0 


North rar'dina 


119.09=i 




13.097 


Tennrgspo 


1.99!t 




9.322 








Total 


239.646 


(M9..566 


8289.232 







Tho reliitive c^uota contributod by each of the throe great arbi- 
trary divisions into which tho country has been apportioned is 
indicated in the followinK table; — 



Pacific Division 

Division of the Rooky 

Moiintiiins._ 

Eastern Division 

Total 



$25,261,828 

7.878.189 
239.646 



$33,379,663 



$21.14-3.881 

19.917.490 
49..W6 



S41.110,<J57 



846.405,709 



27.79.i.t;79 
289.2:i2 



$74,490,620 



The following table shows tho production of gold and silver for 
each t'tute and Territory during the year 1885:- 





830(1.000 

880,000 

12.7110,0(10 

4,2(JO.OOO 

3.2(10.000 

lao.ntx) 

1. HI 1(1.(11 lO 
3.:!(iO.(lll(l 
3,10(1.(1(10 
8(111.000 
1,52.1100 
800.0110 
4.'..0(10 
180.(1110 
120.000 

90.000 


$2,000 

3.8(10.000 

2.51)0.1 00 

15.800.0(.i0 

100 .OOU 


8302,000 




4.(iN0,(iO0 




15,200,000 




20,(:0( 1.(00 


Dakota 


3.3(1(I.(10(J 




136.(Kl0 




3.500.UOO 
10.0(iO.(100 
6.000.(i((0 
3.(10(1.0110 
3.(11 
10.0(«J 


5.3011.(100 




13.aiil,000 




O.KKl.WH) 




3.N(i( 1.0(10 




155.(100 




810.(100 




43.0(10 


tJtah 


6,75(l.66() 
70.000 

5.000 


6.y.iO.(l(lO 


Washington 

TexHS. Alabama. Tennessee, 
Virginia. Vermont, Mich- 


luu.ooo 

95.000 






Totil 


S31.801.0CO 


$51,600,000 


853.401, (JOO 







Gold a.sd Silvee Peodcction of the Different States foe 
THE Ykae 1887. 



State or Territory. 


Gold. 


Silver. 
(Coining 
value.) 


Total. 




8(175.000 

s;i( 1,(1(1(1 

13.400,0(10 

4.(K)0.000 

2.40(1.000 

110.000 

l.OIKI.OdO 

26.000 

5.2:^0.00(1 
2.500.000 
500.0(K) 
225.(100 
900.000 
50.000 
220.000 

150.o(in 
20.000 


S300 

3.800.0(10 

I..500.(H10 

15.000.000 

510.000 

500 

3.000,000 

35.0(1(1 

15..5I10.00O 

4.900.000 

2,300.000 

5.000 

10.000 

.5(1(1 

7,000.111 

10(l.(Hin 

250,5110 


8 (i75.300 




4,030,0(10 


California 


14.910,0(0 
19,(K (1.000 




2,940,000 




llo„ViO 




4,9(10,000 




(i 1.1 100 




20,730,000 


Nevada 

New Mexico 


T,4(iO,ODO 

2,8011,000 

2.30,(KI0 




010,000 




.5o..5(l0 


ITtah 


7,221 l.tHiO 




iiOlKIO 


Other States and Territories. 


27II.S00 




833.136.000 


S53,941.8(.0 


$87,077,800 







Peodi-'Ction of Gold .txD Silver in the United States for 
THE Years 1880-1887. 



Year. 


Gold. 


Silver. 




Coining 
Value. 


Commercial 
Value, 


1880 

1881 

1882 


5r16.OOO.OflO 
34.700.0(Ki 
32..5(iO.(iOO 
30,(HlO,(X)0 
30,800,000 
31,800.000 
35.000.000 
33.000.000 


839.2li0.0flO 
43,0oO.tHi0 
46.800,000 
46.200.000 
48.800.01 10 
51.000.000 
51.000.000 
.53.3.57.000 




1S83 




1884 

18*5 

1886 


842.000.000 
42.504.447 
39.445.312 


1887 


40.150.000 







The annexed table still farther illustrates this branch of Iho 
subject by showinK the eonsnmptioii of the precious "letals in tho 
United States in the industrial arts, as reported by tlio Jlint. for 
tho years 1880, 1881, 1883 and I881):— 

(Jold. Silver. 

1880 $8,6,34.193 $.3,464,169 

1881 .: 10.(n;.723 3.388,421 

18,83" 14.4.59,464 5„5,56,.530 

1885;::,,;.,,,,:... 11.152.120 4.598,413 



UNITED STATES 



[statistics. 



Quick- 
Silver. 



Tin. 



Zinc. 



Nearly nil the quicksilver produced in the United States comes 
from California. Tlie total proiluce of the Calitorniun mines, 
during the years 1880-1887, bus been as tuUuws:— 

188 1 59.926 

SS 1 bO,>Snl 

.882 52.732 

i883 4(i,725 

1884 3 1 .913 

1885 32.073 

1886 1^9.981 

1887 33.825 

No new discoveries of localities of importance have been made 
during the r'ast ft-w years, and the mines which are now worked 
in California have been of bite years in a rather depressed condi- 
tion, owing to the low price of the metal, the increased expense of 
production consequent on the greater depth of the workings, and 
the g^rowing .-scarcity of the ore. No quicksilver mine earned or 
paid any dividend in 18S5; but since that time there has been a 
rise in tlie price of the metal, and a somewhat increased activity 
in its exphiiiation. Two mini,- paid dividends in isSii: thf* New 
Almad n. SI 18.010.75, and the ^tna. SJO.OjIl; the former also paid, 
in 1888, S2>2.()f)3. A considerable portion of rhc quii-k-ilver mined 
in Caliluniiu is used in that and the adjiccnt Curdillerau States, a 
part go*- to Mexico, and there is a small jind varying export to 
China. Tlie low price of i^ilverhas materially affected tho ;;rofits 
of exports to foreign countries. 

The ore of tin has been discovered in Several localities in the 
United States, and there have been many attempts made to open 
mines in various parts of the country ; but up to the present time 
th ' umiiuutof this metal produced has been entir>dy insignificant. 
AmoD;,' the localities in the Appalnchian region where mining for 
tin ha; bi-i-n attempted are, \\'inslow, Maine; Jackson, New 
Hampsiiire; one on the nortiiwestern slope of the Blue Ridge, in 
Rockbridge county. Virginia; and one near Ashland, in Clay 
county. Abibauia The veins in the first two localities mentioned 
are unquesfionably too small for successful working. In regard to 
the oili'T places, it does not yet seem to be known whether the 
conditions there existing are sufficiently favor;tble to warrant the 
exp"Ctjiti"n that thcv will become profitable The fact that there 
are no appar.-nt indic:itions — judging from the descriptions which 
have be?n published — of superficial deposits which could be success- 
fully streaim d f t tin seems a strong reason for believing thrit in no 
opi- of these localities cnuld there be a successful competition car- 
ried on with the stanniferous districts of the flnst Indies and of 
AustraliM , wlice the detrital ores of tin exist in the greatest abun- 
dance. Of' cnurse tin mining could be made profitable in this coun- 
try if a suffici'-ntly high duty were laid upon this metal. 

The stannifef-nus r -gion from which the most has been exp^'Cted 
is th ■ liltick Hills of Dakota, at a locality of about twenty miles 
souchwe-^tof Rapid City. 

Acconling to the official report of Mr. A. Williams. Jr.. on the 
mineral rc-^ources of the United States, for the years 1S83-S4, a 
large amount of mmey has been expended in opi.*ning and pros- 
pecting the Etta mine, and in erecting mills and reduction 
works 

Si far as known, however, up to January, 1SS9, there has been 
no production of tin of commercial importance iu Dakota, nor 
have regular shipments of this m'_-t:il from that region hr-en 
b"g m Tin ore has also been found in tlie s uithern part of the 
State of California, and several attempt-i liave been made to put 
the mines upon the market. The observations of the present wrirer 
in this region in 1860, did not le;id him to the conclusion that it 
was likely ever to become of importance for its production of this 
metiil. 

Zinc has become within the past few years an important article 
of prndiiction in the United Stutes. 

Thf* business of making metallic zinc had not become of any 
importance i»revious to 1875. Since that time it has increased at a 
'moder<fe and pretty uniform rjite. 

' Th" l:i*est :ind most reliable statistics of zinc are those given by 
Mr. C. Kirchhoff, Jr , in the " Mineral Resources of the United 
States f()r 18s7." as follows, in tons: — 



li-ad min- 
iag. 



State. 


..: 


iss:) 


1S84. 


1885. 


18S6. 


1887. 




Ifi.2,5« 

fi.r7'-. 

2,232 
5,0S7 


14.992 
S.044 
.5. lis 

4,763 


15.7 9 
7,(117 
4,669 

7,019 


17.345 
7, .591 
4.176 

7,216 


18.818 
7,975 
5,241 

6,037 


19,892 
10,674 
7,732 

6,648 


Kan.sas 

Missouri 

Eastern and Southern 
States 






Total 


30,145 


32,922 


34,414 


36,528 


38,071 


44,946 



The production of zinc in th^ United States for the year 18S8 is 
estimati'd at .^0,800 tons— a inodc'nte increase ov-r the preceding 
year. This country furni-hes, therefore, at the present time a 
little over one-sixth of the total production of tlie world, which 
has incrcusi-d since the bei-'inning of the present decade from 
about 225,(iOU to very nearly 300,000 tons. 

For a long term of years the production of lead in the United 
States was limited to the Missis'-ippi valley. The deposits occur 
in two districts— one, the so called "Upper Mines," covering an 
area of three to four thousand sqiinre miles included within the 
States of Wisconsin, Tnwa. and Illinois; tho other, the '"Lower 
Mines," in Southeastern Missouri, 



The mode of occurrence of the gulena in both the Upper and Ui'perand 
Lower Mines of the Mississippi Valley is extremely simple. In lower 
the Upper Mines th - geological age of the group of strata in which mines, 
this ore is fouml is l^ower Silurian. In these mines the principal 
lead-bearing rock is a crystalline dolomite, from 25o to 275 feet in 
thickness where not partially removed by erosion. The uiiper por- 
tion of this formation is somewh:it argillaceous; the middle, a 
very pure heavy-bidded dolomite; the lower, a similar rock, but 
containing numerous cherty or flinty masses. This groupof strata 
is locally known as the Upper Magnesian Limestone. It is sepa- 
rated from a roi-k of very similar lithological character, c^'lhd 
the Lower Magn:'si;Ln Limestone, by three groups of stratn . i^ hich 
are commonly designated as the Blue Limestone, th<- Luff Lime- 
stone, and the St. Peter's Sandstone. The first of thrse is a thin- 
bedded, highly fossiliferous, purely calcareous rock; the second, a 
heavy-bedded argillaceous dolomite: the third, a nearly chemi- 
cally pure quartzose sandstone. The Blue Limestone is from fifty 
to seventy feet in thickness; the Bluff, fifteen to twenty; and the 
Sandstone, from eighty to a hundred. The Blue and the Bluff 
limestones are of about the snme geologieiil age as the Trenton 
and Black River groups of the New York (Toologioal Survey. 

The yield of the Upper Mines is gia<lualiy diminishing; and 
this will continue to be the ca<e, since the exte-it of the lead- 
bearing rock is limited, and the vertical range of the crevices con- 
fined to a moderate thickness, there being no proliability that 
pjiying mines will be discovered iu the Lower Magnesian Lime- 
stone. 

The lead ores of Missouri occur, a.nd almost always in associa- 
tion with those of zinc, in three somewhat distinct districts: in 
the southeastern portion of the State, where also nickel and cobnlt 
ores are found: in the central, and in the southwestern. The 
mines of the Southrastern district are in the Lowr Silurian. 

The numerous bad mines opened and worked in various States 
situated in the Appalachian region, from Maine to North Caro- 
lina, have nearly all proved unsuccessful ventures. A few have 
for a short time produ(^ed a moderate snrtplv of this metal; one or 
two have been quite permanent, althoui^h yielding but a very 
small amount of lead ; while much the larger number have proved 
entire failures. 

While the Mississippi Valley lead mines have furnished, of late 
year'*, but a small proportion of the world's supply of tliis metal, 
the United States has largely increased its product; so that, from 
1880 on. this country h isfurnished a quarter or more of the entire 
amount of lead smelttd in the world. 

The total yield of metallic lend throughout the United States Yield of 
for the years 1873-87 is ?iven (in tons) in the following table, pre- metallic 
pared by Mr. Kirchhoff * The desilverized lead of the''<'rdilleran p ad in 
States is separated from the non-arg^'ntifenus of the Mississippi United 
Valley, and its percentage of the total stated. The table as here States, 
presented ext-nds back to the time when the argentiferous lead 
ores of the country brgan to be of importance:— 





Desilverized Lead. 


Non-Ar- 
gentiferous 
Lead. 




Year. 


Amount. 


Per Cent, 
of Total. 


Total. 


1S73 

1874 


17,999 


47.7 


19,983 


37.982 
46,410 


1875 


31.168 
.S3.615 
45,3j() 
57,401 
.57,72i 

77,1 !67 
92.7 15 
lll9,l.6S 
107.112 
95,926 
lii2,.526 
121 021 


58.5 
.58.8 
62.0 
70.6 
69. 7 
71.7 
7.1,7 
78.3 
.84,8 
»i.4 
83.0 
85.0 
84.3 


22,082 
23,590 
27,815 
23,902 
25,116 
24,724 
27,473 
25,91/7 
19.465 
17.796 
18.728 
18..571 
22.454 


53.250 


1876 


,57,205 


1877 


73.125 


1S78 


81.303 


1879 


82.839 


1880 


H-.HH 


1881 


104,540 


1882 


118.652 


1883 


12'<..533 


18.84 


124,!liS 


18S5 


1I4.I-.54 


1886 


r:l.l'97 


18S7 


14,!.1S2 



The Engiueering and Mining Journal estimates the produetinn of 
lead in the United States for the yeiir 1888 at no less than 168,700 
tons. It is an interesting faet that Idaho is beginning to beef 
considerable importance as a lend producing Stite. The principal 
mines are in the Oreur d'Alene district. 

To other ver.v important articles— such as lime, cement, and Non-metal- 
biiildtng-stnne— onl.v brief allusion can here be luade.siiice their liferous 
mo le of ocmrrence is so varied, and the manner in which they are minerals, 
utilized so irregular, that they hardly eiune within the sc ijieof the 
present work. Only very imperfect statisii-s cnuld be obtained in 
regard to such materials as lime and building stunes. "t which the 
use isso wide-spread anil so little under I'ossible ciintrol. According 
to the estimates of the officer in charge of the division of Mining 
Statistics of the United States Geological Survey, the value of the 
lime and building-stone used in the country in the year 1887 was, 
for each of these articles, greater than that of the petroleum pro- 
duced. The item of coal alone onstitutes nearly seven-tenths of 
the value of the non-metalliferous minerals mined; and the five 
items of coal, petroleum, natural gas, building-stone, and lime 
together make up fully nineteen-twentieths of the suui_ total. 
Other important articles are: salt, of the produce of which in 1887 
the value was S4.li9:!.84fi; cement, $5,186,877; limestone for flux in 
the iron manufacture, 93,226,200; phosphate-rock, 31,836,818. The 
importance of the salt manufacture in the United States is so 

•Mineral Resources of the United States, for the year 1887, . 



8T.\TI.^Tir.S.J 



UNITED STATES 



(jreiit that space rniiy be found here for ii few reiiuoks on the 

tooluk'tc.il uiovU- lit ocelli r ucc ot suit, and llie KOOKra|>liieal dbni- 
ithuu uf the (tidt indusiry 

Tiin cuiuuiuu .'*rtti ot [he world U obtainod for use in four differ- 
ent ways: nauu ly. the evuporiition ot ihe ocean water, the evapor- 
ation of the water of ^allhe hikes, the evaponition of talino water 
or brine obtained by Imriiig, and the MiiniiiK ot solid or rock-.satt. 
B*- iMch of thi'so methods salt is. or im.-* l)oen, pioduccd in the 
Vnit d .Slates; but the third of those is at prest-nt by lur the most 
inii"o tant source ot supply of this substance in this country. 

lu ihi' e.irl.v histor.v ot iho country the salt used was in part ini- 
poi tt^d from KuKlanil. and in p;irt prodnc d by the evuporution of 
ife,! HiU'-r on the i>l;ind> adjacent to the coast in a Jow latitude, 
aiol e.-ipeeially Turk'.- Inland. 

The present sources of supply for copper in the I'nited States 
are ctiielly the Lake f'upi.Tior reKion and the Territories of Mon- 
tana and Arizona. '1 he produce of the other States is compara- 
tively insignitieant. 

The mines of Lake Superior, of the date of the oponinpr of which 
mention has already been made, arc of a peculiar charac- 
ter. From these mines only is copper taken e.vclusively in its 
Dative state. 

The "Cliff Mine," on Keweenaw Point, which was Wiirked 
fr.in l^*> to I87J to a depih of ii.-arly l.'iUU feet, is of historical 
iniportanc.' in the development of tlio mining industry of the 
country- a-* being the first permanent deep mine worked, and as be- 
iiij: the first mine of any ore. other than that of iron to pay rc;{ular 
div) k-nds. The .Minnesota mine, m-ar the iJntonaRon river. wa.s 
a otherone<»f interest, and. like mor-t of those to<he west of Ke- 
wvfii iw I'oint, of a somewhat different character from that of the 
Cliff mine, since the cupriferous lode ran parallel with the forma- 
tion instead of aoross it. These longitudinal occurrt nces are, ap- 
parently, intermediate in character between contact deposits and 
s- t'r gated veins. 

The Lake Superior region. »oon after it was first opened, in IS^'i. 
b'-gin to prodnce I:ir*tely and for many years it supplied from 
s»>v.-ii to nine-tenths of the copper furnished by the United 
Stites. 

The growth in the production of copper in the United States 
c mrdU'd up to ISSvS. inclusive from the best data available, is 
<hin\n in tUe fn Mowing table It iiroves in a striking nmnr.er how 
prepondiratihg w;i>. until the past few years, the influence of the 
Lake Superior di>trict ; and again of one great mine in it. the Cal- 
wmet and the Heela. for more than a decade. In order to point out 
more clearly bow prepondenitint: has been the output of the 
Lake district from ls67 to 1H80, u i-<duran has been added giving 
its perc<-n«^'e of the total product from year to year. It should 
be srated that the yield of copper from pyrites isuot hero included. 

Production of copper in the I'nited Statea from 1845 to 1885, 
incfunive. 



Years. 


Total 

prtKlue- 

tion. 


L.nke 
Superior. 


Calumet 

ait<l 
Hecln. 


Percent- 
a(;eof Lake 
Superior 
of total 
product. 


1815 


Long tons 

100 

1,50 

300 

500 

700 

650 

900 

1.100 

2.000 

2.2i0 

3,ft0 

4,0(10 

4.S00 

5,.5(t0 

6.300 

7.200 

7..5no 

9.000 
S..50(l 
8.000 
H..500 
8.9110 
10.0110 
ll.ii(HJ 
12.5l«l 
12,000 
13,0110 
12..5O0 
]5„5IIO 
17,'.00 
l.'i.lOO 
19.110 
2 
21. .510 
2.(,(00 
27 1 in 
.•i2iHn 
4ii--'fi7 
.51 ..574 
6 '.,.5,5.5 
74.063 


Lonff ton« 

12 

26 

213 

4<il 

672 

572 

779 

792 

1.297 

1.S19 

2,593 

3,666 

4.255 

4.081 

3,9-5 

5,:!8,S 

6,713 

6,ot"»5 

5.797 

5,.576 

6.410 

6,138 

7.8.4 

9..346 

11,886 

10,<.'92 

11.942 

10,961 

13,4,33 

15,327 

16,IIN9 

17.085 
17.422 
17.719 
19.129 
22.204 
24.363 
2.5.4.39 
26.(VJ3 
3'i,916 
32,206 


Lonp tons 


12 


184»i :.... 




17 


1S47 




71 


lW-1 




92 5 


1849 






18-50 






1&5I 




86 6 


185> 




72 


]8>3 




64 9 


1851 




71.1 


18V> 




86.4 


18.56 




91.6 


18.57 




81 7 


l-S.^-* 




74 3 


]\59 




63 3 


1HI» 




74 S 


1861 




89.1 


1S..2 




67.4 


]S(V3 




67 


JSiil 




69 7 


i8ia 




75.4 


]sfi6 




68 S 


is<;7 


603 
2,276 
5,497 
6.277 
7,242 
7.215 
8,414 
8.9S4 
9.5S6 
9.6S3 

10.1 r75 

11.272 
11.728 
14,140 
14 000 
]4,:;ot 
14. 7-8 
17.812 
2i.09f 


78 '' 


1Si» 


80 6 


inm 


95 1 


]S70 


87 2 


]S71 


91 9 


1872 


95 7 


1^73 


87 3 


1874 




1875 


89 4 


1H76 


88 9 


1877 


82 9 


187S 


82 4 


1879 


83 2 


1880 


82 2 


1881 


76 1 


1M82 


62 1 


1883 


50 1 


1884 


41 4 


1885 


43.5 



Tlu'fiillo»m([is.iniielai|,thonutputof the LnkePuricriiirniincs. 
lii' uiiijority ut OHM s it is ti.e olliciiil jirodiict, ba.-'cd on suu-ItitiK 



In fl ..., . 

wot kg returns; i 



— -- lew iIl^taIlce> il i.s au oflioiiil c^titiiiil,' «)f the 

initrt pioiluci b.iso.l on ihu known output ot uaiu;r:il. Tho 
<Ma-s i.s llii' only lurk'ir mine in thi' case of which the ilk. it ivii.^ os- 
tiiuatoci fnini the pul)lishid siHtcment of tho output of mineral. 
Tho total is accurate, therefore, within a few thousan J pounds. 

Jhe production of Lake Superior copper mines, 1880 to 1885. 



Mines. 


ISfO. 


1881. 


1882. 


CaluuQet an^l Uecla 


31,675.239 

3,o9ii,2ti3 

3.383.537 

2.336,466 

1.318.471 

2.:M1.195 

970,; 09 

2,1.26.1/78 

67.160 

2:,3.8 4 

517.1.59 

6,615 

43ii,OiO 

3,0.(2 

70.285 

2.':'.,:'5:; 

1.3.195 

78,962 


.31 ..360.781 

5,.'i06.848 

4,179,976 

2,677.932 

1.473.007 

2,528,009 

l,876,'il4 

1,418,465 

2<>,2lvl 

»S6,o9l 

4i 7.684 

669,121 

4 9.3>7 

,'.7l,8!»7 

254,515 

2 5.606 

13'..492 

79,.382 


32.0,53,039 
5,665,796 
4,176.782 
3,264.120 
1.6^3,557 
2.()31,708 
1.412,666 
1.3.53.,597 
757 1 80 




U..^eeola 








Pywabic 


tlrand Piu'taKO 


(-'unglomeratc 

Mas.s 


734.249 
737.440 




Pha'nix 


&t7.177 
540,575 
364,579 
102.9.36 
87.126 
66.053 
'.S i;"3 




Huron 


Kidgo 

Saint Clair 

riiff 


Wolverine 




.55„5S4 
79.469 
17.41.7 


ll9.oii| 
47.3 8 
15.397 






3^ 447 












26.033 


21.227 




Brit 




Sheldon and Columbia 


26.9,31 
3.757 
2,951 


10.031 


3.299 
3,129 




7..500 






Til nnirack 

0{,'iina 

Concord 


.5;8,i.5' 

10,464 
10,651 
21,1 SO 


16'.776 

21.819 

96.8 

4.. 40 

l.,5-i4 


4,207 






Flint Steel Kiver 










9i6 




A>h lied 


24,804 


72,636 
83.554 








6,166 


1.642 






Total 


49.612,337 


54..548.909 


57.1.55.991 


Mines. 


1183. 


1S84. 


1885. 


Calumet and Ilecla 


.33,125,045 

6,012.239 

4,256,409 

3,4.88,708 

1,751 ,.377 

2.t»2.197 

1.171.847 

1,261.556 

735.,598 

221'.! 17 

659.474 

SI 4.1 00 

512.L91 

4^.906 

7J1.2I3 

6li.l.i5 

12.5.225 

10.374 

6<i;i.022 


40,473,.585 
5.650.436 
4.247.630 
3.748.6.52 
1.921,174 
3.163..585 

227.834 
1.44i;.747 

255.81,0 
l.i98.6'.i| 

411.396 

891.161 

(i.;l.oo4 

.562.636 
1,927,660 

74,0:iO 
139.407 

2i.2'25 
751 .7i;3 

23.867 

16,074 


47.247.990 
5,148..530 
1,945.'208 
4,0i.7,105 
2.170.176 
3.512,633 


t).,!Ceola 




Atlantic .... 


Pewaliic 


Ccnlial 


2,157.408 








Muss. 


365,000 

I.l(i8.0(l0 

344 3.55 




I'hoMiix 




2"3.037 




Ridce 


63,390 


Saint Clnir 


Cliff 




AVolverino 


328 610 




28,484 


I.slo Roval 








3„582 
26,006 

6,226 
16,402 




National 


87,368 

1,144 

130,851 

9.828 


162.2,52 
V 668 


Ii,.lt 


27,433 






Aztec 










4.:m 

1,22,5.911 


4 000 


Peninsula 


849.400 
7.4X5 
3,0o0 






181,6t;9 


OKiraa 


1,U6 


12,000 










9.54 


1,500 


Flint Steel River 














Northwestern 








Ash Hod 




1.517 










Sundry companies— tributcre 




21.696 


S4,0O0 






Total.... 


.59.702.404 


69.3,53,202 


72.148.172 



UNITED STATES 



[statistics. 



Montana is next in importance to the Lake Superior district as 
a copper-producing legion. Theniiins are tor tii" uio.-tpart in tlie 
neighborhood of Butte City, covering an area of two and a iialf 
miles long by one mile wide. 

Altlioufth tiiere h;is, of lute years, been a falling off in the pro- 
duction of copper in Arizona, so that at present thi-> 'lerritoiy is 
overshadowed ijy Lake Superior and Montiina. it appears that this 
is due to its unfavorable situation with reference to a market, 
rather than to any exhaustion of its cupriferous deposits, which 
are numerous and important. 

There are many localities lii the Atlantic States, from Maine to 
North Carolina, where mining forcopiier has been attempted, but 
in few of these has anything like a permanent payiiisc mine Ijeen 
developed. The Vermont Copper Ciimpany. located at Vernon, 
toas uiade, perhaps, the nearest approach to a success of any copper- 
mining company on the eastern side of the Appalachians, since 
operations were carried on here for many years uninterruptedly 
and with moderate pmfit. This mine was abandoned for a time, 
liut work has lately been resumed. The ].resent high price of this 
metal has been a great stimulus to mining, and within the past 
f.vv months manv bicalities which had lieen abandoned have been 
taken hold of again by capitalists. This is true for both Eastern 
and Cordilleran States. 

The effect of this excitement will be seen in the anne-^ted table, 
arranged and condensed from the various official reports on the 
Mineral Resources of the United States. It affords a comprehen- 
sive view of the progress of the copper-mining business in this 
country daring the years 1882 to 1888; the amounts are given in 
tons: — 







CO M — ' fO 


»o c^ 


tr 
















" 


1- CR CO m 










s 5 s -^ 


CO (M 

O 


s 










s r: 


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^ 


CO lO t- ■«*< 

CO CO 


S ^ 


CO 




* 


















OJ o 


s 
































Ci <M 










CO 6S 




tr~ 








^ tB ^ ^ 




(M 






















". 












O 


















— t GO lO "^ 

CJi C-I O^i lO 


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„ 






























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o 


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CO 






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^ :g: 


O) 








in 'W «) tN 


o 


o 




















































































































.2 


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a 1 








m 


s 

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II 11 


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H 




























J S < o 


H ta 







The total production of copper throughout the world for the 
year 1888 has been estimated nt 2.0.^.000 tons. Of this amount a 
little over two-fifths is to be credited to the United States.* 



*Thi8 is the estimate given in the Enffineering and Mining 
Journal of Jan. 12, 18S9, from which the figures given in the pre- 
ceding table for the year 1888 are taken. 



The following table gives the amount and value of metallic pro- 
ducts in the United Stiites: 







i 


^ 


^ 


o 


^ 


^ 


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00 


IT 


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to 














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t-; 


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30 




I-; 










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cS 




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tA 


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As will be seen from the table given farther on, the proihiction Salt, 
of suit in Ohio and Virginia, at the present time, is inu h less 
than that of Michigan and New York. The advantatie> which the 
two last-named States offer are, on the whole, decidedly superior 
to those of the former; so that the production of (.)hio has re- 
mained nearly stationary during the last six years, while that of 
the Kanawha Valley, once the most important salt-producing 
region in thecountry, has during that time decidedly decreased, bo 
that at present it is hardly one-tenth as large as that of New York, 
and less than one-seventeenth of that of Michigan. 

The quantity of rock-salt which has I ■ n sluiwn by geological 
observation, or proved by the drill, to exi.-t within the limits oi 
the United States is very large. To the existence of large bodies 
of this material in Western New York and Michigan allusion has 
already been made. Salt has also recently been discovered in 
Kansas, by persons engaged in prospecting for oil and gas, in 
several localities, and in quantities said to be large. Neither in 
Kansas nor in any of the States mentioned as important pro- 



iT\TISTirS.] 



UNITED STATES 



duoors of salt, has tho mininK for rock-salt been of an^ importance 
up to the itrcsent time A locality wln-io this matt'rml occurs in 
liiFKe quantity, iimi tho fxistenci' of nhich htis been known for a 
lonp time, inimelyj Potito Ansf. an isUiid in Vermilion Bay, oti 
tho coa,<t of Louisiana, and \vhich U'came of importnneo during 
tlip (Mvil War. is now quiti* f\(otisivt'Iy workt-ti, and is the only 
source from which salt is obiaintd to any extent in Louisiana. 
Tho MUiuUity mined af this localitv has risen, from 276,000 barrels 
In 1S8J, to over iUiMiOii in 1XS7. 

Unok-salt also oeeurs in huK«' quantity in various portions of tho 
C<ndilleran region, an-l it has been mined at some localities both 
for household and metallurgical purposes. A deposit h:is been 
loriK known to exist on the Hio Virijcn. in Lincoln County, Nevada, 
whore tho salt appears to occur in very lark'0(iuantity, it beini;— as 
is stfttwl — exposed in a canon out thmutih ii for a distance of two 
miles, tho deposit occnpyintr an extensive area, with an unknown. 
but certiiinlv very considentble thickness. There are^also large 
deposits of iliis niin<Tal in Utah, especially in San Pete I'ounty. 
near tho town of Nophi. Most of the salt used in that Stato at 
present, however, comes from tlie suit-farms around Salt Lake. 

The foIlowiiiB table gives, in barrels, the amount of salt pro- 
ductd in the United States from 1SS3 to 1S77:*— 



States. 


1883. 


1884. 


1885. 


1S86. 


1887. 


Mieht^n 

New \ork... 
Ohio 


2.«94.fi72 
1.619.4S6 
3.5i,(]U0 
.320.000 
26x215 
2l4,2sii 
117.143 
21.429 
400,000 


3.161.806 
1.788.454 
320.000 
310.000 
223.9'4 
178.571 
114.2-5 
17.857 
409,000 


3.297.403 
2.304.7.ST 
306.S47 
223.184 
2il9.271 
221.428 
107.140 
2S.393 
250,000 


3.677,257 
2.431.563 
400,000 
2,50,000 
299,691 
2I4.2S5 
161,285 
30,000 
240,000 


3.944,309 

2,*)3..ibO 

365.001) 


West Virginia 
LotiisiftDa — 
Ciilifornia — 
I till 


22.'i.(10fl 

341.093 

28.000 

325,li0i) 


Nt'Trtiia 

Other States.. 


■■256,000 


Total 


6,192.231 


6,514.937 


7,038,653 


7,707,081 


7.831,962 



The astonishing rapidity with which the mineral and metallif- 
erous resources of the C<»rdiUeran region have been developed 
during the past thirty years will have been made apparent lo tho 
reader who has examined tho preceilinj? paKOs. In 1854 the pres- 
ent writer estimated the total value of tho metals produced in tho 
United States at S7;i.K27.rW. of wlnoh nearly 8.^0.000,00(1 was to bo 
Credited to goUl.t The change which has taken place since that 
time will be seen on examining tho folh'winK tables, which give, 
in compact form, results obtaine<i iiud i)ublished by the Chief of 
tho Division of Mining Statistics, of tho United States Geological 

*By W. A. Kaborg, in Mineral Repources of the United States 
for the year 1SS7, p. 611. A barrel is five bushels of fifty-six 
pounds each. 

t?ee Metallic Wealth of the United States, pp. 505-510. 



Survey. The first table shows the total value of tho non-uietallio 
prodaets of the United States for the years 1H82 to 1K'^7, and also 
the grand total of both metallic and non-met illie iroiiuets for tho 
sauio years. The second shows thejimotint and value ol the metal- 
lic products of the United States U>r the years 1SN2-H7. The valuo 
of tho iron is tho spot value; that td" tho gold and silver, the coin- 
ing value; thatof the copper had, and zinc, the value at New 
York; that of the quicksilver, the value at San Francisco: — 



4 s s 



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PART III. rOLITICAL GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS. 



POPl'LATION ANP IMMlcrtATIOX. 

Tho first census of tho United States was taken in 1790, and 
ther<^ has been ono taken every tenth year sineo that time. The 
following table shows th'' absolute number of inhabitants, '* ex- 
cluding Indians not t'lxed." at each deeonnial period, and also 
the rate per cunt, of increase during the previous ten years: 

Year. Population. Percentage of 

Increase. 

1790 3,929.214 

ISOO 5.30S.433 a^.l 1 

1810 7.229.881 3ti.40 

182«^ 9,rj;«,822 33.06 

1H30 12.8(16,020 33,55 

1<I0 17.0.;9.i-^ 32.67 

18.50 23.191,876 35.86 

ISHi 31 ;443.32l 35.58 

1S70 38.558.371 22.63 

1880 50.155.7S3 30.08 

1890 C3.2.;i.428 estimate. 

Growth of .T^*' effect of the Civil War on the growth of population in tho 
»'Pulation. ^'^''®^ States is easily seen in the dinunished ratio of increase 
shown by tho figures for the deciido lsGO-1870. With that excep- 
tion the rate has been extraordinary largo and uniform, but loss 
in the decade 1870-S(I than in any preceding one. That this rapid 
growth of tho population, due in so large a part to immigration, 
will continue to be maintained is in the hiKU>-st degree improb- 
able. Tho fact that nearly the whole of the more viiluable por- 
tion of the public lands has been already taken up, as will bo seen 
farther on, can hardly fail to check immigration, althrtugh the 
population, is at present, far from dense, and far from being go 
larice that there is not ample room for a much larger number. 

The area embrnC'-d within tho United States at tho time of tak- 
Big the first census was aboat eight hundre<l and fifty thousand 
|(|uare miles, a precise statement of tho amount being impossilde, 
• wing to the peculiar wording of that part of the treaty in which 
ihe northern and western boundaries of tho country are defined. 



The density of the population at that time was about 4.6 persone 
per square mile, this population being almost exclusively confined 
lo tho Atlantic sea-botird. At that time nt)t more than five per 
cent, of tho inhabitants of the country lived west of the Appala- 
chian range, the settlements being very closely limited to the bor- 
ders of the navigable streiMUs, .At the tinio of taking the census of 
1*^50. the iMiuiidaries of the United Mates had become definitely es- 
tjihlish.d. the only addition made since that time being the terri- 
tory acquire<l in 1853 by the (iadsen purchase (about ■t7,;i30 square 
miles). At that time the average density ol the population of the 
whole country was a little less than eight persons per square 
mile. 

Tho following table shows the density of the population at the ^ 
epoch of eacii census which has been Inken during th>' time when 
the area of tho country renniined (with the exceptiou of tho pur- 
chase of Ahu*ka, not hero included) unchanged:— 

Y'ear. Area of U. S. Population per 

sq. mile. 

1860 3,025.600 10.39 

1870 " 12.74 

1880 ** 16.57 

Tho movement of tho population ha.s. from tho beginning, boon Movennnt 
from the east tnward tlio we^t. the first settlements haying been of popuhi- 
inade on the Atlantic<'oast. and the emigration to the United Stutos tiou. 
having been almost exidusively from European countries. The 
Pacific coa.>it had. previously to the annexation of California, re- 
ceived a small number of whites eoniing from Mexico, and sineo 
that timetliore have bet n some aec'ssions to th>'pi'pulution in that 
region by moans of cmittration frum China; but the number added 
from this direction is almost insignificant in compari.->on with that 
which has come into tho country from the east, llenco the center 
of i>opulation hns been moving westward, and the investigationa 
of the Coast Survey and of the Census Bureau have shown that this 
movement has been in an almost exactly westerly direction, and 
that tho center of population has always reninined very near tho 
parallel of 39°. In 1790 it was in the latitude 30° 16' .5. at a 
point of about twenty-three miles east of Baltimore; in lB80it 



UNITED STATES 



[statistics. 



vfis eight miles west by south frnm CinL-iimRti, in latitude 39° 
4.1,' having moved westwitrd 457 miles in umety ye;ns. The most 
southeiiv point leached was that of ]b30, wh'-n ttu' ct^nter vriis in 
latitude 38*^ 57'. 9; the lUDSt rapid movement was in the p'rioil 
lS5ii-'JU — iiamt-Iy, eighty-one miles, thi:? being due to the rapid 
tran'«fer ■>£ a considerable population from the Eastern to tlie 
Patiitic States, consequent on the discovery of the gold of Cali- 
fornia 

The division of the population by sexes, as shown by the c nsus 
of ISSU, was as follows: 

Males 2.5,518,820 

Females 24,636.9(53 

The number of females for each 100,000 males in 1870 and 1S80 
was as follows ; 

1870. 1880. 

Number of females to 100.000 males 96,514 97,801 

editions As n natural result of the conditions influencing emigration 
l;ie cing from the older to the newer States, it is found that females ure in 
imlatiou. exeess in the Atlantic States. In the Di,striet of Columbia, 
Rhode l.^laud and .Massachusetts, the excess of females over males 
is five pcT cent, or more; in Connecticut. New llamiishire. North 
Carolina, South Carolina. New York, Virginia and Alabama, it is 
from two and a half to five per cent. ; in Maryland, (ieorgia. New 
Jersey, Louisiana, Tennessee, Pennsylvania and Maine it is less 
than two and a half percent. The States, on the <ither hand, in 
which the males are considerably in excess of the females, are those 
eituat" d in the Cordilleran region, where mining is the chief imr- 
suit, and where the conditions of life are such as are mur<' easily 
borne by men than by women. In Michigan. Minnesota. Kansas 
and N braska, which are not Cordilleran States, but. which are 
on the -xtreme nortliern, western or southwestern borders of the 
Central region, the numberof femah^s is from eighty to ninety per 
cent, of thatnf the males, Hnd New Mexico is in the sanie category. 
Ip the Pacific co:isr States the number of females is from fifty to 
eightv per cent that of the males: and the same is true of Colorado 
and Dakota, which are situated on the'eastern bordi*rsof the Rocky 
Mountnin , arid which are partly agricultural and partly mining 
States. In those States in which mining and stock raising are by 
far the prcdominatiiiK interests, and which are entirely inclosed in 
the Cordill ras. namely, Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming and Montana, 
the inequility in the numbers of the sexes is greatest, there 
bi-iuK in thf?;e territories less than half as many females as males. 
The sMine ini quality exists in the territory of Arizona. 

Of the colored population the census of 1880 showed the num- 
ber to b- 6..".S0,793 to 43.402.970 whites, or 15.162 colored in every 
IOO.OIpO whites. The slight increase in this ratio from that given 
by the cen;^us of 1S70 (14,528 to lUU.O(lO) is believed to be chiefly, 
if not entirely, due to the imperfection of the census of 1S70. 
The colored population is still, in spite of some slight emigration, 
almost eiirin-ly confined to theformerslaveStat.es. and in three 
of them-Sonth C-.irolina, Mississippi and Louisiana— the colored 
are in access of the whites. In Alabama, Florida. Georgia. Vir- 
ginia, North Carolina and the District of Columbia the colored 
element runs from fifty to ninety per cent, of the white; in Ar- 
kansas. Texas. Tennessee and Maryland, from twenty-nine to 
thirty-five per cent; in Delaware and Kentucky, from nineteen 
to twentv-two percent; in Missouri. Kansas. West Virginia, New 
Jersey, Ohio. Rhode Island, Pennsylvania and Indiana, from two 
to 7 percent; in all the remaining States it is less thaa two pT 
cent.; and in most of them, especially the more northern ones, it 
is less than one per cent. 

Distribution of thr Population op the United States in 1830, 

r BY DrAINAOE BaSINS. 



Drainage Basin. 


.Area in sq. 
miles. 


Population. 


Total. 


Per aq, mile. 


New England Coa-'t. . 
Miildle Atlantic Coast. 
South Atlantie Coast.. 

(treat Lakes 

Gulf of Mexico 


6I.S.S0 
83.IJ2C1 
I.')2.fi40 
17.i,340 
1,725.980 


3,788,334 

9.240,897 

4,114.563 

. 5.6'*4.U7 

25.884,117 


61.2 
111 3 
31.2 
32.4 
14.9 


Total Atlantic... 
Great Basin 


2,173,210 

22-.1.W 
019.240 


48,717,293 

227,1 Ii7 
1,211,383 


22.4 
1.0 






Total 


3,023,61:0 


5'',155,783 









The distribution of the population in reference to the topo- 
graphical and climatic features of the country is &uch as naturally 
arises from the constant operation of two causes, both acting in 
the same direction. Emigration and overflow from a more thickly 
pettled region toward one more thiidy inhabited takes place, with 
insignificant exceptions, from the east toward the west. Immi- 
grants arrive from Europe, are landed on the Atlantic coast- 
about three-fourths at one point, Now York— and thence in largo 



part find their way westward in the direction of lands unoccupied 
or only thinly settled. To the east of the Mississippi the land is al- 
most everywhere exceptionally fertile, and the climatic condi- 
tions are, oyer a large area, as ei:plained elsewhere, very much 
the same, and on the whole highly favorable. Soonafier crossing 
the Mississippi, we find that thif^ tavoiiible condition ot things 
begins to change. Notonlyis t,he immigrant getting farther ai,d 
farther from his home, but he is finding his environment h'ss . nd 
lets suited to the devtdopment of those conditions which favor 
the exi.-tence of a dense population. Never, by any po.-.-ibility, 
can the region of small rainfall, and, in large part, of rugged 
mountains, extending from the first belt of Stntes beyond the 
Mississippi to the belt lying directly on the Pacific coit t. become 
a densely populated portion of the country. Thi.'-dryt-i r gion 
is also the most elevated, as has already been fully explained. 
The results of the conditions thus indicated are sufficiently showr 
in the above table and the following: 

Geographical Distribution OF the Population of the Jnited 
States in Accordance with the Topographical Features. 




North Atlantic Coast 

Middle Atlantic Coast 

South Atlantic Coast 

Gulf Coast 

Northeastern Appaladiian Region 

Central Appalachian Region 

Region of the (Jreat Lakes 

Interior Table-land 

Southern Appalachian Region 

Ohio Valley 

Southern Interior Table-land 

Missi.'sippi River Beit, south 

Mi-si ssippi River Belt, north 

Southwestern Central Region 

Central Region 

Prairie Region 

Missouri River Belt 

Western Plains 

Heavily Timbered Region of the Northwest 

Cordilleran Region- 

Pacific Coast- 





Prrcent- 


Population. 


a;:e of 
■lota! 




P<ipulat'n 


2,616,882 


5.2 


4,375,194 


8.7 


875,3.s7 


1.7 


1,055,851 


2.1 


1.669.226 


3.3 


2.344,223 


4 7 


3,049470 


6.1 


5,716,326 


11.4 


2.695.085 


5.4 


2.442.792 


4.9 


3,627,478 


7.2 


710,L6S 


1.4 


1.991,362 


4.0 


2,932.807 


5.8 


4,401,246 


8.8 


5,722.485 


11.4 


8.35,445 


1.7 


323,819 


0.7 


1.122,337 


2,2 


932.311 


1.9 


715.789 


1.4 



Tlie larger divisions of the country are represented as follows, 
both aa to the aggregate population and its different elements: — 



Region. 



Atlantic Plain 

Central Valley 

Appalachian Region 
Cordilleran Region . 



Percentage of Population. 



Total Foreign. Colored, 



29.84 
.53 60 
13 38 
3.28 



32.74 
51.62 
8.40 
7.24 



40.50 

50.02 

7.22 

2.26 



In regard to the distribution of the population of the United 
States in towns and cities, and the positions of those centres, tho 
following may be stated : — 

In 1790 there were in the country four cities having a population 
of from 8.000 to 20.000 and two above 211,000. but not one surpassing 
75 000 in number. Fifty years later, there were forty-four towns 
and cities having a population of 8,000 and over, and one of about 
500.000. In 1880 there were 2S6 towns with over 8,000 inhabitants. 

The following statement gives the names and population of aU 
the cities having, in 1890, a population of over 100,000: — 

Over 1.000,000. Population 

Name. j„ ]h9(,_ 

New York 1,.51.3.,tOI 

Chicago I.0HK..576 

Philadelphia 1,044,894 

Over .500,000 and Under 1,000,000. 
Brooklyn 804.377 

Over 2.50,000 and Bklow 500,000. 

St. Louis 460,357 

Boston 446,.507 

Baltimore 433,6.39 

San Francisco, Cal 297,990 

Cincinnati 296,309 

Cleveland. Ohio 261,546 

Buffalo, N.Y 255,54.'i 



STATISTK'S.] 



UNITED STATES 



OvKH lOO.uCO AM) Bklow :»i.OOO. 

NfW Orl.nus. La 24 1 .995 

J'iUsburt.', I'oiiii 2;i^.47.i 

Woshinuton, I). C -J-Jf.lGii 

Detroit. Micii 21 T.Till 

Milwunki'i'. Wis 2i 3.!i7'.» 

Nowa k. N. J 1^2.120 

Loui.-ville. Kv IM.T.'ii; 

iMiiini'aitolis. .MiDti li>4.7H(l 

Jersey t'itv N. .1 Ii..1,iis7 

Roihestor. .\. Y I:5.:i02 

liiniihB. Xcb 1;j4.T42 

Si. I'.iul. Minn 1:«.I.tI) 

I'Mvi.k'nco. R. 1 132.043 

Denver, C'lil liG.ISti 

lndiiin!ip,.lis. In.1 12.'>.li(0 

KttTisii.-; Cltv. .\I<> K5.ii()U 

AllcKbuny City. Pa 104,9(i7 

Over V>.(m and Bklow lOO.dOO. 

Scrnnton, Pa 9",.0c 

Allvmv. S. Y gi.Sii 

Niw Hiivin. Ct W.i'Sl 

Wc^rcoster, AlHss 82.1."> 

UiL'hinoml Wi.:'< 

Pat.TSon, X.J 78.300 

Memphis. Tonn 7o..3(iO 

The Ci'nsiis nf mso fhowcd that of the total populntion. .'iO.lM.TSS, 
there were tj,67i'.14 i born in foreiKii eoiintries. or l.">.3r>4 iter.'^ons 
fon-iBners to loO.Odii native born: this ratio was n little less thiin 
in 1?*70, when the uunibrr of foreiKn-born was Hi ^75 to loii.oou 
niitive. 
.Vn-nbor of The following tables sh-tw the miinbcr of iimuiprants arriving in 
tni MiifniDt.s tile ITniti' J States for each (l.'entic from 1H21 to l-SSO, ami for each 
i^ing in year from ;HS1 to 18^7 Tiie yearly average tluring each decade 
it.il ros- rapidly, from 14.:il4 in the dcca.l." 1^21-30 to 2SI4.469 for the 

u'S. df-eade l^-'HSO. The numb T of immiKnmts for the year 1881 was 

more than 'wiee as (treat as the yearly aveni^'e of the preeedint; 
doea le. The maximum was reaehed in 1S82, when the number of 
immigrants reaehed 730.319. from whieh time forward there wns n. 
falling off. the figures in 1SS5 being ^i^O.-MO. A portion of this 
apparent decrease seems to be due to the fiict that the fftatisties of 
the irainigrarion by land Irom Canada and .Mexico— the latter very 
sm-ill in amount, howevi-r — could not h^ collected; so that since 
Julv 1. ls^.■), arrivals of this kind have been excluded from the 
tab! -s of immigration. In the first table herewith given, the 
nttionalitv of the immigration is only imperfectly given, the 
British Islands being S'-paratcd from the rest of Kuro[)e. and the 
figures also being for China. As will be noticed, the immigration 
from Kuror>e and China m;tdi' up about five-sixths of the totnl 
during the decade 1871-80. But in the decode IS.'il-CO the immi- 
gration frora Earoi»e made up twenty four twenty-fifths of the 
tot.d. that from China b'-ing praet'cally null. The apparent in- 
crea.^e of iniiniitration trion extra-Kuroiicmi countries indicateil 
in th-! table foi 'he deoides >ince IsiVi is chiefly <lue to the rapid 
increase of iinuiigntion into the United rotates from the adjacent 
Dominion: but this is made uj) in ruirt of per>ons who have come 
to the United States from l^urope by way of Canada: 







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3 ^ S5 S 



O ^ f-< CO 

g 3 p; g 
t2 ^' a g 



^ td 



= -:^ H 



n a: i:^ W 



[In this ami the followinj:; t:iblc notirf must bo tiikcn of the fnct 
tlijit tor the ]ii>t. Imltuf IS-S.' a[i«l f'.rl^s6 nml iss" the imir.igration 
from Liritif^h Nurih AmcrioaanJ Akxico is not included ] 

Still further Hpht will he thrown on this suhjt-ot by the follow- 
intr tubhr, in which the natiiniality of tlu- iiuniij-'nttioii into tho 
United States is piven in cunsidemble detail for tho years 1881 to 
18S7. in porcontiigt'S of the totiil amount. From tliis table it will 
be sot'ii that (lermany has furnished durinj; the past seven years 
somewhat less than one-thinl of the total iinniiKration ; (Jreat 
Uritain and Ireland somewhut more ihnn a (lUarter; Norway ami 
Sweden abovit a tenth: Hriu>h North America about a tenth; Aus- 
tro-lIunKiiry a little over six per ectit; Kus^la (iiK'luilinf,' Poland), 
frorn four to five p r cent; and 1 tal>' nearly the name. These nation- 
alities tojretiier have furnished dnriitf,' the past t-\x years nbout 
ninety-five per rent of the total. Tli'- imnii;:ralion from Italy and 
Russia shows a moderately rapid, but pretty uniform, incrcusu 
from year to year: — 



Percentaok Tablk Showino thk Nationality of Immigrants 
INTO THK United States for the Years 1881-87.* 

















1881. 


1882. 


1883. 


1884. 


of inimi 
grants. 


Great Britain 


I.T.IO 
9 S.) 

a 92 

.27 

1.24 

.78 

Jl.Bfi 

2.79 

\.W 

11.61 

2.01 

.06 

1.62 

.00 

2.87 

13.22 

.54 


12.11 

9.99 
4.10 

.1.5 
1.75 

.76 
31.80 
4.l« 
l.l'S 
12 00 
3.07 

.66 
1.62 

.06 
4.87 
11.90 

.65 


12,92 

14,67 

.5.30 

.29 

1,71 

.70 

32.33 

5.18 

.86 

9.45 

1.78 

.16 

2.00 

.06 

.07 

11.74 

.78 


13.69 

12.70 

6.81 

.37 

1.65 

.80 

33.72 

3.14 

.81 

8.22 

4.3? 

.11 

1.78 

.23 

.02 

10.3? 

1.25 




AiiStro-lIuiigary 












(Jermanv 




Italy 
























O'her European Countries 




Briti>h North America . ... 














100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 





UNITED STATES 



[the public lands. 



Pkkcentage Table Showing the Nationality op Immigrants 
INTO THE United States foh the Years 18>i5-87.* 



Great Britain 

Irelaiul 

Austri) Hungary 

Lflgium 

Deumurk 

FniicL' 

Germany 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Norway and Sweden 

Russia 

Spain and Portugal 

Bwitzerland 

Oth'-r European Countries, 

Ohimi 

British North America 

All Other Couutries 



1885. 



15.92 
14.21 
7.31 

.39 
l.tiT 

.i«J 
30.72 
4.42 

.71 
9.47 
5.72 

.2(5 
1.46 

.19 

.02 
5.22 
1.41 



1S86. 



18.7'' 

13.47 

10.22 

.42 

1.69 

1.114 

21.96 

7.78 

.68 

11.73 

8.45 

.13 

1.15 

.64 

.00 



1.89 



100.00 100.00 100.00 



1887. 



20.64 

14,06 

7.56 

.58 

1.80 

1.08 

21.53 

8.99 

1.02 

13.46 

5.95 

Ml 

1.26 

.25 

.00 



1.81 



Percentage 
iajrease of 
native 
wtiite 
element. 



The immigration into the United States is very unequally dis- 
tributed over the siirfiice of the country. An inspection of the 
census tables and the accompanying maps shows; that immigrants 
in very largtj proportion seek Northern regions. In the Southern 
States, with the exceptions of Florida, Louisiana, and Texas, the 
foreign element is practically null. Virginia, North Carolina, 
South Carolina, Alabanm, Georgia, and Mississippi have less than 
one per cent of foreign-born populatiun; and no State south of 
Pennsylvania and the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi has 
as much as four per cent. In the belt of States between the 
parallels of 41° and 45°. on tho other hand, the foreign element is 
most strongly represented. Tlius in Massachusetts. Connecticut, 
Khode Island, New York, Michigan. Wisconsin, Minnesota, and 
Dakota the fon.-ign-liorn population is over twenty five per cent of 
the native, and in the two last-named States over fifty per cent. 
Iowa. Nebraska, and Kansas, forming a bidtof States extending 
Fouthwesterly from Wisconsin and Minnesota to the 37th parallel, 
have a foreign-born population ranging between ten and twenty- 
five per cent of the native, except in the case of Nebraska, where 
the foreign ia a little over twenty-five per cent. In some of the 
thinly inhabited States farther west the fonign clement is still 
more prominent, as in Colorado. Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and Cali- 
fornia. In Nevarla, for example, according to the census of 1880, 
the foreign-born inhabitants were lo the natives in the ratio of 
70.065 to lOU.OoU. But it must be remembered in this connection 
that the entire population of Nevada at that time was only H2,2ii6, 
and that of Arizona 40.440. In no State or Territory docs the 
foreign element equal the native, and only in Nevada, Arizona. 
L)akota, Minnesota, and California is it more than half as large, 
while in the two last-named States it is but litt'e more than half. 
Texas forms an exception to the other- Southern vStates, the foreign 
element being of importance, especially in the southwestern por- 
tion of the State. The State as a whole has. however, only a little 
less than eight per cent of foreign-bnrn inhabitants. 

The percentage increase of the native white element of the popu- 
lation was. for the three decades 1851-80, as follows:— 

1851-60 32.35 

1861-70 22 .95 

1871-80 3 L 25 

Early in 1882 an Act was passed by Congress suspending Chinese 
immigration into the United States for the term of twenty years. 
This was vetoed by the President, antl another one was passed 
having nearly the same provisions as the first, but limiting the 
time of its operation to ten years. This Act was not vetoed; but 
became a law I\Iay H. ]8S2. This S'-coud Act is entitled "An Act 
to execute certain treaty stipulations relating to Chinese." From 
and after ninety days after the passage of this Act the entrance 
of Chinese *' laborers " into the United States was forhiilden, and 
any master of a vessel bringing them here was punishable by a 
fine of S50i> for each laborer so brought, and also by im- 
prisonment for a term not exceeding one year. The pretext 
for this unprecedented Act was "that the' coming of Chinese 
laborers to this conntry endangers the good order of certain 
localities" within^ the territory of the United States. The 
term "laborers" was held to mean "both skilled and un- 
skilled laborers, and Chinese employed in mining." 

Further legislation relating to the exclusion of the Chinese from 
the United States was had by Congress in ISSS. The two Acts were 
passed, the first having been approved Sept. 13, 1888, and a second. 
Bupplementary to this. Oct. 1. of the same year, The object of 
these two Acts was to prevent the Chinese who were then in the 
United States from returning after having left this country. 
The first Act. (approved Sept. 13) allowed a native of China to re- 

*The immigration into the United States arriving at the six 
principal ports (embracing about ninety-eight [ter cent of the en- 
tire immigration) was, for the first nine months of the year 1888, 
■432.802, a slight increase over that of the corresponding months of 
the preceding year. 



turn, provided he had a " lawful wife, child or parent within the 
United States, or ftroperty therein of the value of one thousand 
dollars, or debts of like amount due him and pending settlement." 
This privilege was entirely cancelled by the supplementary Act, 
approved Oct. 1 : and as the matter now stands, only " Chinese oflS- Exclusion 
cials, teachers, students, merchants, or travelers for pleasure or of Chinese 
curiosity are permitted to enter the United States." Furthermore, 
it is provided that in order to becom/ entitled to such entrance 
they must " obtain the permission of the Chinese Government 
or other Government of which they may at the time b© 
citizens or subjects." This permission, and the personal 
identity of the party having obtained it, must be au- 
thenticated by the diplomatic or consular representative 
of the United States at the port or place from which the 
party comes. It is further provided that any master of a vt ssel 
landing, or attempting to land.any Chinese laborer, "in contraven- 
tion to the provisions of this Act, shall be deemed guilty of a mis- 
demeanor, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished with a 
fine of not less than five hundred nor more than one thousand dol- 
lars, in the discretion of the Court, for every Chinese laborer or 
other Chinese person so brought, and may also be imprisoned for a 
term of not less than one year, nor more than five years, in the dis- 
cretion of the Court." 

Provisions have also been made by Act of Congress for the regu- 
lation of the immigrant earryingbusine^s, and rubs have been pre- 
scribed as to food, water, light, space occupied, etc. A tax of 
fifty cents is also iuijiosed on all immigrants landing in this coun- 
try to be used "in defraying the expense of regulating immigra- 
tion under this Act. and for the care of immigiants arriving in • 
the United States, for the relief ot such as are in distress, etc."* 

By an Act of Congress, approved Aug. 3, 1882, it is provided that Rules for 
no convict, lunatic, idiot, or person " unable to take care of him- iiumi- 
self or herself without becoming a public charge " shall be permit- grants, 
ted to land. Under the provisions of this Act it appears that from 
1883 to Sept. 25, 18>'8, 7,764 immigrants had been returned from the 
United States to their own countries— or an average of about 1,3U0 
persons a year. Of those thus returned from 1883 to 18^8 inclu- 
sive, there were 27 convicts, 371 lunatics, and 131 idiots. The re- 
mainder (7,235 persons) were returned as" liable to become a pub- 
lic charge."! 

THE PUBLIC LANDS. 

The emigration from Europe and other countries consists 
largely of people seeking homes in the New World; and this want 
is chiefly supplieil by the purchase of government land — " public 
lands," as usually designated by the authorities — that is. of such 
land as is offered for sale by authority of thetieneraHioverument, 
under the direction of the General Land Office — a branch or sub- 
department of the Department of the Interior. It is desirable. Extent 
therefore, that the way in which the General Government came in s-n^ 
possession of these land^ should be briefly stated, and some idea position, 
given of their extent and position. 

The boundaries of the United States as fixed by the provisional 
treaty made with Great Britain in 1782, and by the definitive 
treaty in 1783. gave to the United States essentially the region 
south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi, as far south 
as the parallel of 31°: and the southern boundary east of the Miss- 
issippi, as thus established, nearly ahmg the 31st parallel, was, in 
1795. re-affirmed by treaty with Spain, by which the line between 
the United States and the Floridas was fixed; but difficulties soon 
arose in regard to the northern boundary, both in its eastern and 
western portions, which wei e, during many years, the subject of 
heated discussion, and which more than once threatened to in- 
volve the two countries. Great Britain and tlie United States, in 
war. The most important points, were, however, peaceably set- 
tled in 1846. and the last point in dispute finally disposed of, by 
reference to the Emperor of Germany ns arbitrator, in 1872. 

At the time of the adoption of the Constitution by the original 
thirteen States, most of thein had <?laims. rather vague, and in 
many cases decidedly conflicting, to a more or less indefinite area 
of country west of their settlements, and extending back to the 
Mississippi River. After much discussion, the States having 
these claims, influenced by the distinct realization of the trouble 
which Would ensue in case an attempt was made to maintain 
them. did. in response to a resokiti<m of Congress, consent to a 
transfer of these claims to the United States. The first cession of 
this kind was that of New York, in 1781. and the last, that of 
Georgia, in 1>1<12. The region thus ceded was divided into two ter- 
ritories, one of which was called the "Territory Northwest fif the 
River Ohio," the other the "Territory South of the River Ohio." 
This region formed the nucleus of the public lands of the Uniteti 
States. This did not include the present Stntes of Kentucky and 
Tennessee, the former having been admitted to the Union without 
any claim on the part of the United States to proprietorship in the 
soil, and similar rights in regard to the latter having been relin- 
quished by Act of Congress. The total area of the United States 
at this time was about 850.000 square miles. The first addition 
made to this was by the French cession of the undetermined area 
known as Louisiana. This was brought about by .Jefferson, who 
recognized the fact that France would not be able to hold the 

*This tax is not collected from immigrants coming from Canada 
or Mexico. 

fA very stringent Act was passed by Congress in 1885, prohibits 
ing the importation and immigration of foreigners and aliens "un- 
der contract or agreement to perform labor in the United 
States, its Territories, and the District of Columbia. "_ This Act 
can have little practical effect on the number of immigrants ar- 
riving in this country ; nor has the writf r been aljle to procure any 
definite information as tp whether any persons have ever been 
sent back under its provisions. 



THE PL-DLIC LANDS.] UNITED 

rcirion ngainst the EiiKlish. with whom lionnpiirtc. iit thiit tiino 
First ftddi- (18;i3-lSOI) Fir.-t C.misuI, whs iiboiit to ku to war. Tho tronty of 
tion. cession with Boniipiirte (fiivo do jtrooise limits to tlu' territory 

ceiled, but only Jcseribed It us beiiit; the saim- a.s thiii ceded by 
Spiiin 10 Kraaee uccordiuK to the trenty of San lldrfonso. Phis 
vaKueness wus. nodoiibt aKreeable to tho wishes of the .Amerieiiii 
noKOtiators. whoiiid not luck forosiitht. iind who must easily have 
comprehended the fact that the more rafciie tho terms of tlieccsslon 
the better the ih:ineo of a future extension of tho elaima of the 
United Slates westw.ird. In point of fact tho French cession did 
not include tho eountrv west to tho l*aeific. n.s it was afterward 
held to do. for the French had no claim whatever to the region 
west of the head of the Missouri. .\s a consetpienoi' of this cession, 
hovrever, this vast reKion did come into [lossessiou of the 
United Stales, the boundary havinir been finally settled m l'-72. 
after ninety years of discussion. The final settlement was by a 
rofereneo of the point in dispute to the Emperor of llermany. who 
decided in favor of the United Sbilcs: the main question w ith re- 
gard to the extension of the boundary alonw the line of the4'.Hh 
parallel to the Pacific. haviiiK been settled in IMei by the Webster- 
Ashborton treaty, which fixed the boundary as far west as the 
Straits I'f Fuca. This cession of Louisiana, as finally settled by 
treaty with EuBland. added largely to the area of tho United 
States, exlonding its limits to the Pacific Ocean, and t-irint; tbiit 
country complete possession of the Central River system of the 
continent, iho cost of this cession to the United Slates was about 
twenty-three and a half million dollars in principal and in- 

A further addition to the territory of the United States was by a 
cession from Spain of tho territory comprised in tlic presi-nt Slate 
of Florida, which took place in 1819. tho area thus conveyed being 
about .^S.i-ViO square miles, and the cost about six and a half millions 
of dollars. Previims to this cession, however, tlie_ United States 
had, by. Act of ConKress passed in secret session in 1S12. but not 
promulgated until I'^IH. taKen possession of an area of about 9.74fl 
pquare miles in West Florida, which was claimed by the Spanish 
(.iovernment as its property, but which claim was relinquished by 
the cession of 1S19. 

The next acquisition of territory by the United States was tho 
result of ihe admission into tho Union of the llepuijlic of Texas, a 
former province of Mexico. huvingan area of 2i).^.7S(t s<iu«re miles. 
This annexation led to a war with tho country to which Texa-s had 
formerly belonged, the result of which was tbeconqucstof Mexico. 
the occupation of its capital by the United Slates army, and the 
dictation of a treaty of peace called tho "treaty of (laudalupe- 
IlidalKo," which was proclaimed July 4, 1S48. Iiy_ this treaty the 
[ southern boundary of the United States was established : but sub- 

I sequently, r>ec. 30. 18.5;i. a purchase was maile <if a strip of land ly- 

in;: south of the tiila River in Xew Mexico and Arizona, and eon- 
taininp about 47. 33iJ square miles. This is known as the " Gads- 
den purchase." 
Claims of The claims of both Great Britain and Mexico to the region lying 
Ore;it Brit- west of the Missouri and northwest of Texas being extremely 
n in and vague, it is not possible to state, with any approach to precision. 
Mexico. what portions of this area oriKinally belonged to the two powers 
in ciuestion. All that cjin bn anid is that, remotely, in consequence 
* of tne purchase of " Louisiana " from Tioiniparte. and more direct- 

ly, as the result of treaties with (!reat Britain and Mexico settling 
tne northern and southern boundaries of the TInited Slates, the 
last named country came into possession of a little over l.HDh.oou 
square miles of land, as shown in the folbwing statement of the 
nature and size of the areas added from time to time to what was 
the original domain of the Colonies at the time of their establish- 
ment as an independent government: 

Square miles. 

Original area of the United States 849,145 

Added by purchase of Florida. 1819, 
including 9.740 square miles pre- 
viously in dispute, but in posses- 
sion of the United States 58.680 

Annexation if Texa^f. 1848 2ro.780 

Ga.lsden Purchase. 1853 47,330 

Purchase of Louisiana and cessions 
by Mexico, 1804-4-8 l,B04.ti65 

Total 3,025,600 

One other aildition to tho area of tho United States was made 
in lHii7, namely, by tho purchase from the Russian Government 
of the region known as .\laska, which comprises an area of about 
5.fil.0(«l square miles. The price paid for this |)iece of land 
was S7.2'Hj,(MXi. The purchiiso of this territory, the nearest point of 
which is four hundred miles distant from Iho northern lino of 
Washington, was an entirely unprecedonU'd act on tho part of the 
United Slates, all the rest of the poBsessions_of this country form- 
Aliska. ing one compact mass of land, Whene\'er. in the course of this 
work, mention is made of the United States, it will bo unilersto<id 
that .Ma-ka is not included, unless a statement to that effect is 
specially ma/le in the same connection. 

The entire area of tho public lands of the United States (exclu- 
sive of Alaska, no portion of which has yet been surveyed) is esti- 
mated by tho Commissioner of the (general Land onice. in his re- 
port for the year 1*'^;. at 2.S:J6.725 square miles, or l.815..i04.147 
acres. (Jf this area there had been surveyed, up to .Tune .%. 1881!. 
971.174.878 acres, leaving 844..'!29.269 unsurvoyed. In riference to 
tbis unsurveyed portion the rommissioner maile the following re- 
mark: "Thevolumeof land in the unsurveyed portion of the 
public domain suitable for homes and subject to settlement under 
the laws of thbUnited States is of comparatively small propor- 
tions." 

Of tho public lands of the United States a large quantity has 



STATES 



been sold for ea.-^h, nml n uiuoh larjr>*rMinount taken, under vaiious 
Acts of ConBross, for :^ctioul.s uml cthor educiitiunal puri'tiges; as 
military bnunty ; as " swamp land," given to th<' respective .States 
uhoru it ocfuis, <ir ha.s been claiaifd to occur; as a bonus for tho 
construction i>t various linos of railroad, especially those travt rs- 
ing the ooutin-rit from eaj^t to west; na ** hom^'^^toads " to actual 
(JottltTS. and for various other purposes. It iM impossible to state 
the exact uinount of the public land which has been thus disposi^d 
of. but it is cortain thiit nearly all tho vnhiabK' porli(tn of the na- 
tions great iuheritauci- haw bi-en taki-n up alreaily, or has passed 
out of the control of iho Ooverninent. In re^'a^d|to this point, 
till" foll'iwinK MU'*'ttti')n may bo made from the introduction to 
the volume entitled" Statistics of AKriculture.'" formintja part of 
the report of the census of issu. and published in IN83, the re- 
marks hero quoted beiiig from tho pen of General AValker» 
formerly fl.iporintondent of thnt censu>: 

" It tnus appears that, notwiih.-tafidinff the imposijig total of Valuable 
1, 400.(100 s(|nare miles of still unsettled territory, the amount of laml 
land avitilablo for occupation for ordinary iiKriculture is not already 
lari.'c. 'rh(^ Tul'tio Land ('ommission in their rejiort of 1^80, say: gone. 
'It was estimateil.Iuno ;^(l. isTU. that (exclusive of certain lands in 
Souihorn State>) of lands over which tho survey and dispo.-^ition 
laws had extended, lyiuk' in the AVfSt, tho I'nited Stales did not 
own, of arable aBrricultural public lands, which could bo culti- 
vated without irritration or other artificial appliances, more than 
the area of the pnsent Sfiito of Ohi<i. niimi-ly. 2r>.5(5t).Uti(i acres. The 
quantity of hind taken up in tho arable rcfrion during' the year 
ending Juno i-iO, 1880. wa-i about 7.fKt0.iHtO acres. Tho Com- 
mission, therefore, reaehes tho startling conclusion that, at 
tho same rate of absorption, tho arable lands so situated will all 
be tnken up within three years, or by Juno 30. 1883.' , . , 

"It is indeed an astonishirif,' announcement that the public land 
system, so far as relates to ajrricultural settlers, has virtually 
come to an end: that tlio homestead and pre-emption acts are 
practically exhausted of their contents." 

Professor A. B. Hart has compiled from public documents the 
following approximate statem-nt of the manner in which the pub- 
lic lands had been disposed of up to the various periods men- 
tioned. The numbers given indicate acres : 



tC t- *^ C7> 
C-l t- O --' 

C: lO C> I— 



f: S 



^ S i 



'■a^ ^ 




M 


o 




^•-cSS 


: : : S 


7? 


9^ 


^ 


Z-'i'Sti 






o 








CO 


k 


a 

M 





















L is 






:2-B 



3 « 



-■r fe.= ao 
=:S-S S S 



^ 2 s 



to -r 



2 s 



i-( r-. O M r- — . 



I s^ S 



In reference to the wasteful and reckless manner in which the 
public lands of the United States had been given away, until but 
little of value remains. Professor Hart makes tho following re- 
marks: — 

** Kxpert^ in the Land Oflico assure us that, making all deduo- 
tirnis and allowances, tho remaining lands are worth upwards of a 
thousand million dollars. There is no evidence in the past policy 
of the government for believing that we shall actually net one- 
tenth <if that amount. The greater part of tho rcgitm is officially 
classified as 'desert lands.' and is for salo in tracts of six hundred 
and forty acres, at a dollar and a quarter an aero. Nothing but 
tho temporary increase of pro-empiioii enables the Land <»Ihce at 
present to pay its running expepses out of income. The golden 
time is past; our agricultural laud is gone; our timber lands are 



UNITED STATES 



[agricultuke. 



fast going; our coal ami luioeral lands will be snapped up as fast 
as they prove valuable."* 

AGRICULTURE. 

The following statements and Uiblcs present a succinct vi^w of 
the nartire and iuiportiinc^ of tht; agricultural interests ot the 
luited States, bcginuin}^ with the cereal.--. 

I. — THE CERKAI.S. 

The following table shows the production uf the cereals in bush- 
els, as returned by the census of ISSO: — 

Production iu bushels. 

Barley 44.1 13.495 

Buckwheat U.SI 7.327 

Indian corn l,"54,8til.535 

Oats 407,858.999 

Rye 19.831.595 

Wheat 459,479,5U5 

Production T^e production of barley was largest in California (twelve and a 
of cereals, halt* million lm.>iii.*Ni; other States producing eunsidernble quan- 
tities were: New York, Iowa. Minnesota. Nebraska, Ohio. No 
other .State produced as much as one million bushels. In 1886 the 
total production of barley in the United Slates was 59,428,000 bush- 
els; of that nmount California produced lii. 038.000 bushels: and 
New Y<jrk, Minnisota, Wisconsin and Iowa each over five million 
ami less than ten raillinn bushels; while Nebraska, Michigan and 
Dakota each produced over one million and less than five million 
bushels. 

The total production of buckwheat within the United Srates. nc- 
cordinur to the census of 1880. was 11,817,327 bushels; of tliis amount 
New York and Pennsjlvania produced respeciively, 4,4bL2Ut) and 
3,592,326 bushels. No other ^State produced as much as half a mill- 
ion bushels; the production of this cereal in the Gulf States being 
extremely >;mall, that of the Pacilic States lieinic also very insig- 
nificant. No one of the States, otlirr than Nrw Y'ork and Pennsyl- 
vania, produced as much as half a million I'ushels 

In 1886 the totnl r-roduction of buckwheat was 11. 809.000 bushels, 
oralmost exactly the same as in the last census year (1871*). 

Indian corn is the most bulky crop among the cereals, the total 
yield as reported by the census of 1880 being 1.7-^4,^61 ,535 bushels. 
The principal production of this crop is in the belt of States lying 
north of the Ohio, and in the same latitude on the west of the 
Mississippi, as will be seen from the following table:— 

ProductioB in 

State. bushels in 1879. 

Illinois 325,792,481 

Iowa 2" 5,024.247 

Missouri 202.485.723 

Indiana ]]5,4'^2 300 

Ohio 111,877. 124 

These five States produced, as will be seon, consid rably more 
than half the total yield of the country in the year for which the 
statistics aregiven. As we go north, south, east and west from 
this belt we find the yield of Indian corn diminishing. Still, this 
cereal is a product of importance even as far south as the On If 
States, but is of comparatively little consequence in New England, 
the total production of the sis New England States in 1879 being 
only 8.376.133 bushels. 

In 1886 the total yield of Indian corn was 1,665.411.000 bushels, 
and the States producing over one hundred million bushels each 
were: 

Production in 
States. bushels in 1886. 

Illinois 209,818,000 

Iowa 198 847.000 

Missouri 143.709,000 

Kansas 126.712,000 

Indiana 1 18.795.000 

Nebraska 106.129,000 

Yield of In- These six States produced in that year considerably more than 
dian corn, half of the total, and the gradual advancement westward of the 
agricultural development of nhe country is shown in the appear- 
nnce of Nebriiska in the above column of figures as a producer of 
o\ er a huudn d millions of bushels. The yield of Indian corn in 
ibis State, according to the census of 1870, was 4. 73h. 710 bushels, 
and in 1h79 it had increased to 65.450. 115 bushels. The figures for 
Dakota for the same years were 133,140 and 2.000,8(i4 bushels. 
Of this crop, so important »s it is for home consumption, but a 
very small fraction is exported. The following table exhibits the 
total produce o' the country for the years since the census year 
U879) up to and including the year 18S6, together with the per- 
centage exported for each year: 

Production Peroent. 

Year. in bushels. exported. 

1880 1,717.434.543 5.5 

1881 1 .194.916.000 3 7 

1882 1.617.025.100 2.6 

1883 1.. 551 .066,895 3 

1884 1.795,528,000 2.9 

188.5 1.936.176.0UO 3.3 

1886 1 .665,44 1,000 2.5 

*Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. i. p. 181 (number for 

January, 1887). 



The yield of corn in 1887 is given by the Depurtment of Agricult- 
ure as 1,456,161,000 bushels, and that of 1888 is estimated at 
1.987.790.000 bushels. Since 1879 the home consumption of this 
cereal ha.^ averaged ab-mt twenty-seven bushels per annum for 
each inhabitant of the country: in the ten years precLding it aver- 
ag'-d about twenty-five buthels. 

The total yield of oats, as reported by the census of 1880, was 
407.858.999 buslicls. Th ■ di.'^tribution of this crop is pretty uni- 
form all over the country, with the exception of the Gull and Pa- 
cific Coast States, where the yield uf this cereal is very small, 
barley taking the place of oats in California almost entirely. 

The following table exhibits the production of oats in the United 
States from 1880 to 1888: 

Year. Production in bushels. 

1880 417.885.380 

1881 416.481 .000 

1882 488,2.50.610 

1883 571,3(2.400 

1884 583,628,000 

1885 629.409.000 

1886 624,134.000 

1887 659,618,000 

1888 701 .735,000 

The increase in the number of acres cultivated in oats since the 
census year has been very marked: more so than in the c.sebf 
wheat or Indian corn. The averag- for the decade, 1870-79 was 
11,1)00,000 acres; that for the years 18SO-87 was 21,000,000 acres. 

The amount of rye grown in the United States as returned by Rye. 
the census of 18&0 was 10,831..^95 bush«ls; the principal States 
where this crop is raised being, in the order of their yield. Ptmu- 
sylvRnia, .S,6S3,621; Illinois. 3.121,785; New York. 2.634.t.90; Wis- 
consin. 2.2!i8,5]3; imd Iowa, 1,518,605 bushels. The production of 
this cereal in the States south of Kentucky and Virginia is ex- 
tremely small, but some rye is given as grown in every State and 
Territory, except Arizona and Nevada. The production of rye in 
1886 was 24.489.1)00 bushels ; Kansas appearing this year as a pro- 
ducer of a little over two million bushels, and Nebraska of nearly 
one million. 

Wheat is an extremely important crop in the United S'ates, Wheat. 
and is the only cereal of which the export is considerable. The 
great wheat-growing States are those along the north side (>f the 
Ohio, from New York westward and across the Mississippi into 
Iowa. Kansas and Northwest, including Nebraska, Minnesoin and 
Dakota. The yield of the census yesir (1879) wns 459,479.505 bush- 
els. In that year. Illinois. Ind'ana, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota 
and lowM, each pr-tdueed over thirty million bushels; the total 
yield of those six States was somewhat more than half that of the 
whole country. In 18S7 the totiil was very nearly the same (4.56,- 
329.000 bushels), but the distribution of this yield was S'-mewhat 
different. There were in that year also six States prorlnc-ng ench. 
more than thirty million bu.shels. Of these six, four are among 
those included in a similar category for the year 1879 Michigan 
and Iowa have dropped out of that list, and Dakota and Califor- 
nia must be inserted in their places.* These six States, as before, 
produce almost exactly half the entire yield of the country. What is 
more remarkable is. that Dakota, which in 1879 only figured with a 
produce of 2.'^30.2S9 bushels, appeiirs in 1877 as furnishinfr no 
less than 52,406,000 bushels, or more than one-tenth of the whole 
crop of this cereal _ Other States of importnnce in 1887 were Mis- 
souri, Iowa and Michigan, each of which produced between twenty 
and thirty millions of bushels; and Nebraska. Oregon, Pennsyl- 
vanifi, Wisconsin, Kentucky and New York, ench of which pro- 
duced between ten and twenty millions of bushels. 

In the tabular statement of the yield of wheat for the year 1887, 
as given by the Department of Agriculture, forty-two States and 
Territories appear as jiroducing more or less of this cereal, but the 
Quantity grown south of Kentucky and Virginia is very small. 
The yield of the (iulf States is entirely insignificant, Florida and 
Louisiana not appi'arinK at all ill the list; and that of New Eng- 
land is equally iinimiiortant. the whole produce of that section of 
the country being in that year only 74.547 bushels. 

The following table gives the production of wheat, total value, 
value per bu>hel. and amount exported for each of the years, 
1880-87:— 





Total produe- 


Total value 


Av. value per 


Amt. export- 


Year. 


ti(in. 


of 


bushel 


ed. 




(Bu-h"10 


crop 


(in cnnts). 


(Bushel.x.) 


18S0.... 


49S..54S,.s«8 


8474,201,850 


95.1 


186.321.514 


1881.... 


383,2^0,090 


4,56.880,427 


119 3 


121.892.389 


1882.... 


,504,1.S5,470 


444.602,125 


88 2 


147.811316 


1883.... 


421.0,S6,160 


38:!,649.272 


91.0 


111..5,S4.182 


1884.... 


,'il2,7(fi,000 


3».862,260 


t^4.5 


132.570..3(;7 


188.5... 


3.i7,I12,liOO 


275,320,390 


77.1 


94.,5l.5.794 


1886.... 


4.57,218,«iO 


314,226.020 


68.7 


153.804,970 


1887.... 


456.329.000 
448.815,699 


310,612.960 
373,794.413 


68.1 
83.3 




Aver'ge 


135.500,076 



The estimate of the Agricultural Department of the yield of 
wheat for the year 1888 is 415.86S.( 00. 

The grass crop i-: well understood to be the greatest of all the Grasa 
crops of the United States. Altogether, in addiiion to the very and hay. 
hirge amount consumed from the ground during the grazing sea- 



* The yield of California remained nearly the same in 1887 that 
it was in 1S79. In the former year it was a trifle over thirty mill- 
ions ; in the latter a trifle under ihnt amount. 



AC.HICULTrUE.J 



UNITED STATES 



son. the vnluo uf the burvcstoJ h:iy teaches iionrly to that of the 
grciit St of Uio cereal crops. The fulluwtDg gtati^iics iiie pre- 
tieott'd: — 

Tho area mown in 1879 was 30.G3l.054 ncres: in 188t>. 36.5lJl.fi88 
a<.'rt!i The vahio of iIk- hay out iu the lutier year wu.- ;i.')3.437.r)99.* 
lu Mn • .State (Ni-w York) ihu thIuo utiioiintt'd to ovi-r fitly millions 
ot dollars; iu uho (Pennsylvania), to uvor thirty and less than 
forty millions; in three t^Uile.-* (Illinuis. Ohio and Iowa), to over 
tweilv a:id loss than thirty unlli»ins. 

Th»'K'ra-s and hav proiiucinK* indu.stry decreases in inirortanco 
a^ w ■ »:o troiti the Norlli lowjird the 8"'Uth. Thus, tlie thirteen 
^tatfs in tiifli .if which (in IS?'.') more than a million of acres were 
mown ftTL" 111! ni>r(h ot tlie punilh-I of :>7°; and all but two (Missouri 
ati'l Kansas) north of 39°, e.\cepting very small fractions of Ohio, 
In>liaii:i and lilinois. 
's The nnmhcr and value of the animals on farms in the year 1886 

prod- was ad follows:— 

Number. Value. 

Horses l;i.l7l!.l)3*) ri4<i.ftt6.154 

Mules 2.191.727 174,85.3.563 

iM ilch cows 14.'<5(J.414 3i36.252. 173 

Oven and other cattle 34.37S.3(i-J 6n.7.V).52u 

Mieep 43.544.755 89.279.920 

Hogs 44.:i46.525 22().81 1 .082 

Th ' importance of the crop of Indnm corn has ijiven a great de- 
velopment to the business of fattt-nintf swine, and an average of 
abuut fifteen per cent, of this proiluetion hiis. during the past 
twenty-seven vears. b-en exporteii. The uvoragi' value of "hojf 

t)riiducts" (live hogs, bacon, hums, pork and lard) exported has 
jeen. during the years 1S^^1-S7, $73,671,007 per annum, as a^^ainst 
$65.13. .-;9s in the deo:ide 1871-SO. 

The stati-tics of dairy products given in the Agricultural Report 
of ih C -nsus uf 1880 for the year 1H79 are presented in a very con- 
de^^ed tonn, as follows: — 

Milk soM. or sent to butter and cheese 

factories - - • 530.129.755 gals. 

Butter mmic on farms 777.2-50,287 lbs. 

Cheese made on farms 27.272.489 Iba. 

The very great extent ond importance of the poultry industry 
in the I'nited Stjites is miide apparent by the following statement 
of facts gathered by the census of 1880: — 

Barnvard poultry on hand. June 1. laSO... 102.272.135 

Other ponltrvonhand Junel. 1880 23,235.187 

Eggs produced in 1879 456.910.916 

At twelve cents a dozen, the annual value of the egg product to 
the farm would reaeli nearly 855.0*1)1, (KX). find the value of tli.- fowls 
consumed as fo"d may fairly be estimated at 8-0.()0ll,ii0<i, The aver- 
ngo yield of egt^ per fowl is fully twice as great in the Northern 
States as it is in the Southern. 
1. The cotton production of the I'niteil States is of great impor- 

tance, both from the extent to which this material ismanufact- 
ure*t within the country, and because it is the first on the list iu 
value among the expt)ris. 

_ Cotton is mentioned in the records of the Colony of Stmth Caro- 
lina as early as 1664. and tt small quantity was exported in 1747. 
The invention of the cotton-sin by Eli Whitney, in 17'.i4. wjts fol- 
lowcfl by a rapid development of the cotton-mising hu-^iness 
throu^'hout th" Suuthern iStatcs. The first crop of sea-island cnt- 
tttn w.'is riiised in 179<i, from seed that came either from the Jiaha- 
ma or Barbudoes Inlands. 

The total production of the country in the year 1879 is given by 
the census (tf 18SU at 5.737.257 bales, of 375 pounds; this having 
been assumed to be the weight of the bale, in 1H79 — the a\('rage 
proi'*'rtion of seed lo fibre, or lint, in the crop as it comes from the 
field being given as two to one. The stated number of biiles is 
equivalent, therefore, to l.;i62.599 tons (of 2.000 pounds) of lint or 
fibre, and 2.725.197 of seed. 

This production was divided among the States as follows: 

Field. Av. Product 
per acre. 

Bales. Fraction of bale. 

Mississippi 9.55.Hn8 0.4i) 

Georgia 814.441 0.31 

Texi.s 803.642 0.37 

A lahiima 699,654 30 

Arkansas 608.2.56 0.5S 

South Carolina 622.548 0.38 

Louisiana 608..569 0..59 

North Carolina aS9.598 44 

Tennessee 3;J0.r44 0.46 

Florida 54.997 0.22 

Missouri 19.7.33 0.60 

Indian Territory 17 WK) 0.49 

Virginia ll.OdO 0.46 

Kentucky 1..367 0.51 

Total 5,7 .7.257 gen. av. 0.40 

From the nbovo tjible it will bo seen that the limit of profitable 
cultivation <'f cotton is pretty sharply (iniwn -it ubiul the parallel 
of 37"; the nrnduction of Virginm and Keiituekv— the southern 
border of which States is in the latitude 3'l°;i0'— bi-ingexceedinply 
small. Tho production of Missouri is limited to a highly fertile 

* This includes only hay cut on farms, and not that cut on 
public lands and lands of non-residenta* 



region lying in the extreme southeastern portion of the State; 
while thai of Kentucky pertains In the eountrv lying adjacent to 
Western Tennnesseo and the rich bottom-lands al< uu the Missis- 
sippi Uiver. It does not appear that any cotton is produced north 
of ihf Ohio River. 

According n. Professor E. W. Ililgard, Special Agent of the Cen- 
sus ut l-^Ho. in chargf <'t the subjt ct of Cotton Produci ion, the 
h'liih productiiin ot .\li^^i^^ippi is due in part to tlie greut fertility 
and large area of the "boitoiu-Iaud" aicug the Mis^iseij pi River 



within the limits of thut State, and in larger pjirt to the icrtility 
table-land bordering the Missisnjtjd bluff. 



ol the ■ uplands. _ ^ , . . 

and the interior "prairie belts." These favorable conditions havo 
as a result that cotton culture is the one pur>uit to which the pop- 
ulaliiiu of this Statu ik-votes itself. ll is rather great natural ad- 
vantages than skill and industry which give Mississippi the first 
idaee ill the production of cotton. Professor Ililgard thinks that 
oy enlarging the urea of tillable IsiihI in the \a/.iM) bottom, by sim- 
ple exclusion of the overflows of the Mississippi, without any 
change in the methods of culture, the priduce ol the State might 
be raised to two and a (juarter millions of bales: and that with 
improved cultivation the production might be brought up to five 
millions, so that under these eomliiions Mississipjd alone could 
produce the entire cro|) now grown in the United States. 

(Jeorgia stands second in total production among the States, 
but the average production |)er acre is but two-thirds that of Mis- 
sissippi. The area of what would be calhd in the last-named State 
first and second class cotton soil is in (jleorgia <iuite limited— tar 
more so thiiii is the case iu the neighboring State of Alabama; yet 
the former State is slightly in advance of the latter in the average 
proiluct per aero. The high position of tieorgia as a cotton produc- 
ing State is due therefore, not to natural advantages, but to better 
cultivation of the soil, the use of fertilizers, and the thrift of an 
industrious popuIati<m. 

Texiis— much the largest in area of the cotton i>rodiicing States, 
and also slightly larger in population than imv of the other ihilf 
States— stands third on the list of total production. Intheavrrago 
product per acre it is nniong the very lowest. This fad seems to be 
due. in large part at least, to the position of Texas in reference 
to precipitation. In this State the total amount of raintall is 
considerably less th;in in the other (lulf Stales, owing to it- p.pgj- 
tion in referenee to the prevailing winds; and the <liminiition of 
rainfall is rapid as we recede from the coast. The precipitation is 
largest in theextreme northeastern portion of theStato, Jii.dhero 
—north of the 32d parallel an(i east of the 98th meridian— moro 
than half the cotton protluct of the State is grown. The tuct 
that Texas is so much larger than the other cotton pn dncing 
Maicamust also be borne in mind in connection with its position 
HS the third on the list. Itluis. in fact, an area more than five 
times as great as the average area of the si.\ other principal cotton 
States. 

Alabama is naturally as well suited for the growth of cotton as 
the two States adjacent to it on the east and west. Georgia and 
Mississippi; and its position as fourth on the list, and as inferior 
to both these States, is c<msidered by Professor Ililgard ro bo 
due to the fact that Mississippi is still within the period of the 
first flush of fertility, while tiCorgia has reached the stage where 
iier fields are being renovated by the use of fertili/.ers; while the 
soil of Alabama has begun to be exhausted, but this exhaustion 
bus not yet proceeded so far that th'- cultivators realize the neces- 
sity of making good this deficiency by proper modes of cultivation, 
as is dr>ne to a certain extent in (Jeoigia. 

In StMith and North Carolina the nveruge cotton production per 
acre is hit;has eompiin-d with that of Ahibntna and (leorgia. ami 
in the case ot North Carolinaappri'aches that of Mis8issipi>i itself. 
The reason for this condition ot things is to be foun<l chiefly in 
the introduction of improved methods of culture, and the use of 
fertilizers. In South Carolina the so-called sea-island ctton is 
produced— a variety of cotton of great value, although small in 
amoiMit. the production of it for the year ISSd being set down in 
the Census Report as 0.966 bales. The finest cotton ever known to 
h)(Vo been pnKluced is the long stuple cotton of Edisto Island, 
which -^old for two dollars a pound when otlicr cottons were only 
bringing nine cents. The ishmds wdiere this crop is grown line 
the cia^t. sometimes forming three or f<iur panilhd belts, having 
tiieir greatest development at the mouth of Rroad River, frura 
which in each direction along the coast they <limini?h in num- 
bers. 

All the important cotton-producing States with the exception 
of Aikansas and Tennessee, lie either on the (lulf of Mexico or the 
.Atlantic eoast; but the principiilcotton-i'iortucing areas in the case 
of each of these States are at a considenible distance from tlieeoast. 
Thus, in Mississippi by far the grenter portion of the area planted 
in cotton lies in the northern atid western part of the State, 
while in the extreme south there is an area wliere cotton culture isi 
either very subordinate or practieally non-existent; nor is this de-! 
crease of cott<m culture accompimied by a corresponding increiiso 
of some othi-r prodnction. In Louisiima ati ohvious fact— ren- 
dered aiiparent by a glance nt the map showing the reliitive area.s 
given to cotton eulturo in the State— is the decrease of cotton cul- 
ture as we advanee southward In Alabama the central prairie 
region, or black soil belt, a narrow strii) of country only about 
twenty-five miles wide, running east nnd west through the centre 
of th'' State, more than a hundred miles from the coast, produces 
forty per cent of the entire cotton crop. AdWicent to this particu- 
larly rich bolt on the north and south is a l)clt of h-ss but still 
large productiveness, making the total width of the central cotton 
belt about seventv-five miles; atid here nt least sixty per cent, of 
the cotton of the State is raised. In (ienr»;ia the principal cotton- 
producing belt runs nearly parallel with the co-t^t. and nt a dis- 
t'utee of from one hundred to one hundred ami fifty miles from it. 
A sin. iliir Condition of things is clearly indicated in both North 
and South Carohna. 



Ooorgi" as 
a cotton 
producing 
State. 



Texas. 



Alabama. 



South and 

North 

Carolina. 



UNITED 

Oil comparing the facts here stated with the position of the 
i^otlierinal and isohyetal curves in the r<--giun where cotton is 
grown, it will be seen that nearly the entire productiou of cotton 
comes from the area included between the isolhernials of 6u° and 
6'i°, and there is none cultivated in any ret^ion <if lower mean an- 
nual temperature than 56^. It also appears that the cotton-pro- 
duciug area is one of comparatively large precipitation, being no- 
where less than thirty-ei{,'ht inches, and generally considerably 
over that amount: and also that this precipitation is pretty uni- 
formally distributed throughout the year. From this it is seen 
that the climatic conditions favorin;; the growth of cotton are of 
such a nature as to limit its succes-ful production to a compara- 
tively small area, differing in this reMnct materially from some of 
the other staples of the country, esjiecially Indian corn and wheat. 
It will also be evident that the conditions existing on the Pacific 
coast do not favor the successful caltivation of cotton in that 
region - 
Tible of The following table exhibits the production of cotton and the 

€ -ttoii amount exported for each year from 1S80 to 1887. The average an- 

I'roduction. nual vield during the twenty years previous to 1861 was 1..335.000,- 
OCO pounds ; during the twenty-three years from 1865 to 1886 it was 
2.207,0110.000 iioiinds— an increase of lj.")..3 percent. During the 
pen tad 1833-S-7 the average was 2.036,345.355 pounds, or a little less 
than the average of the years 1865 to 86 : — 



Kentucky 

largest 

tobacco 

producing 

tjtate. 



Rice. 



Year. 


Production in Pounds 


Exports in Pounds. 


1S80 


3.l;)'.l.822,b82 
2,588.286,636 
3,405,1170,410 
2.7.57,544,422 
2,74JH66,oll 
3,lK2,:i.5li..531 
3 1,57,378 443 
3 .31 O.UOO.i.OO 


2,190.928,772 


Issi 


1.739,975.961 


1882 


2,208.075.062 


1833 


1,862.572.530 


18S4 


1,891.659.472 


18^5 


2.058,037.444 


1886 




2,169,457,330 


18=7* 




2.200,000.000 




"Approximnfe 





The climatic conditions un uji woich tobacco can be raised seem 
to be quite variable, since more or less of this crop is furnished by 
almost every State in the I'niim.The yield of the extreme Southern 
and extreme Northern States is. however, very small: as (in 1870), 
of Maine only 250 pounds; of Oregon, 17,325; of New Mexico, 890; 
of Louisiana. 55.9o4. 

The largest tobaceo-producing State is Kentucky, with 171.120.- 
7S4 pounds in 1879. according to the census of 1880. Next 
comes Virginia, with 79,9S8.8l»: then Pennsylvania. 36.943.272; 
nhio. 34.735.235; Tennessee. 2H.3(i5.i'52; North Carolina. 26,986,213; 
.Maryland, 26.082,147; Missouri, 12,015,6.i7; Wisconsin, 10,608,423. 
From this it is evident that the ciilture of tobacco is 
carried on most successfully in the Middle Atlantic States 
aod those bordering on the Ohio River, diminishing gradu- 
ally in this latitude westerly, and having no importance in 
the extreme Western States. The mean temperature of the chief 
tobacco producing area is indicated by the statement that it lies 
b 'tween the isothermals of 52° and 60°. As regards precipitation, 
a somewhat moi-t climate seems to be required, and there is little 
tobacco raised where the rainfall averages less than thirty-eight 
inches. The isothermal of thirty-two inches seems to be the limit 
b-yond which it cunnot pass. The total yield of the United 
States in the year lS7;i was 472,661.159 pounds, having an estimated 
value as raised, in the producers' bands, of 851,104,870. 

The production of tobacco in ISSti was about eleven per cent. 
Inrtrer than in 1879— namely. 532,537,000 pounds. The relative 
rank of the States in the production of this crop was almost ex- 
actly the same at the two periods. Kentucky and Virginia to- 
gether furnished in 1.886 more than half the total, or 285.104.0n0 
pounds. The entire value of the tobacco raised in 1886 was 
$39,469,218. 

The production of rice tor the year 1879 as returned by the cen- 
sus of 18S0 was as follows: — 

Pounds, 

Alabama 810,.'(S!i 

Florida 1,294,677 

Georgia.,, 25.369,«s7 

Louisiana 23.188.311 

.Mississippi 1,718,951 

North Carolina 5.669.101 

South Carolina 52,077,515 

Texas 62,152 



Average yield per acre. 
,5U 
508 
725 
5,52 
491 
517 
664 
186 



Total 110,131,373 gen. av. 632 

The production of sugar from the sugar-cane is extremely small 
as compared with the consumption of this article. Louisiana is 
the only State of any importance in this connection, although a 
small quiintity of sugar is made in each of the following States: 
Georgia, Florida, Texas, Alabama. Mississippi and South Carolina. 
The total production in the year 1879. as returned by the census of 
1880. was— of sugar. 178.872 hogsheads, and of molasses, 16,573.273 
p.allons. of which Louisiana furnished 171,706 hogsheads and 11,- 
696.24S gallons. 

The census of 1880 gives the following statistics of the produc- 
tion for that year of sugar and molasses from sorghum and the 
maple: 

Sugar Molasses. 

Sorghum 12.792 lbs. 28.444.262 gals. 

Maple 36..576.061 1.796.048 

The principal production of sorghum molasses is in the States of 
Missouri. Tennessee, Kentuckv, Illinois, and Iowa: that of maple 
sugar, in Vermont and New York, in each of which States the 
"roduce was over lO.OiKl.OOO pounds. 

The following additional facts in regard to the agriculture of the 



STATES [agriculture. 

United States are condensed and arranged from the volume en- General 
titled " Statistics of Agriculture," in the Census Report for 1880 :— summary. 

1870. 1880. 

Total number of farms 2,659,985 4,008,907 

The term " farm." as here used, is understood to mean a tract 
of not less than three acres, unless $500 worth of produce has 
actiuilly been sold off from it during the year, and owned or 
leased by one man and i uitivated under his care; — 

Total area of United States in acres 1,856,108,800 

Number of acres in farms 536.081,835 

1860. 1870. 1880. 
Proportion of unimproved land in farms 

to improved, ill percentage 59,9 53.7 46.9 

Of the 4.t>08.907 farms returned, 74 per cent were cultivated by 
their owners, 8 per cent by tenants on basis of fixed money rental, 
and 18 per cent by tenants paying a share of the product or rent. 

The totiil value of the farms of the United States, including 
land, buildings and fences, is given by the census of 1880 at 
$111,197,096,776; and the estimated value of all farm productions 
sohi consumed, or on hand, in 1879, was $2.12.540.927, 

The following tabular statement, from the volume of the Census 
Report of 1880. entitled "Statistics of Agriculture." and published 
in 1883. presents a resume of the principal facts connected with 
the agricultural interests of the country, so far as concerns the 
amounts or values of the different products: — 
Condensed Tabular View of Aqeicultukal PROOtCTS chiefly Tabular 

IN THE Year 1879. arranoeo from the Census Report. Volume statement. 

ENTITLED "STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURE," PUBLISHED 1883. 

Number of farms 4.0ti8,907 

Value of farms, including land, fences, and 

buildings $10,197,096,776 

Estimated value of farm products for 1879, . $2,212,540,927 

Wool produced 210,681,751 pounds 

Milk (not including that sent to butter or 

cheese factories) 530,129,755 gallons 

Butter (including that made on farms andin 

factories) 806,672,071 pounds 

Cheese (made on farms and in factories).... 243.157.8.50 

Barley 43.997,495 bushels 

Buckwheat ^11,817.327 " 

Indian corn 1,7.54 591.676 ** 

Outs 4i7.858.',i99 

Rve 19.83l„595 

Wheat 459,483,1,37 

Cotton 5.7.T5..3.59 bales 

Flaxseed 7.170.951 bushels 

Flaxstraw 421.098 tons 

Flux fibre 1,665.546 pounds 

Hemp 5,025 tons 

Sugar (sugar-cane) 178,872 hhds. 

Molasses (sugar-cane) 16,573,273 gallons 

Sugar( sorghnin) 12,792 pounds 

Molasses (sorghum) 28,444,202 gallons 

Sugar (maple) 36..576.061 pounds 

Midasses (maple) 1 .79r.."4H gallons 

Hay mown ,36,l.">e.711 t'>ns 

Clover-seed l,'.'i;'J.;is2 bushels 

Gras.s-seed 1,317.701 

Eggs 466.910,916 dozen 

Honey 25.743,208 pounds 

Wax 1,105.689 

Rice 110.131.373 

Tobacco 472.661.157 " 

Potatoes. Irish 169,158,539 bushels 

Potatoes, sweet 33.378.693 

Orchard products (sold or consumed) $50.876.1,54 

Market-garden products $21,761,250 

Hops 26,.546,378 pounds 

Broom corn 29,480.106 

Peas 6.514.977 bushels 

Beans 3.075.( .50 

Wood, amount out 51,442.624 cords 

Forest products, value of all consumed or 

sold $95,774,735 

The following general summary presents in one table the esti- 
mated quantities, numberof acres culjiyated, and aggregate value 
of the principal crops of the country in the year 1886: — 



Products, 


Quantity, 


No. of Acres 


Value. 


Indian corn 

Wheat 


1,66.5,441,000 bushels 
4.57,218,000 

24,489,000 
624,134,000 

69,428,000 

11.869,000 
168.051.000 


75,694,208 
36.806,184 

2.129.918 
23,658.474 

2.652.ft57 
917.915 

2,287,136 


$610,311,000 
314.226.020 


Rye 


13,181„310 


Oats 


186.137,930 


Barley 


31 .840.510 


Buckwheat 

Potatoes 


6.465.120 
7S.441.940 


Total 

Tobacco 

Hay 


3.010.630.000 bushels 

5.32„570,no0 pounds 
41,796.499 tons 
6,445,864 bales 


144,146,792 

750,210 
36,501,688 
18,454,603 


$1,240,603,850 

39.468.218 
35:5.437.699 




257,295.327 










199,853,293 


$1,890,805,094 









>(.\XrFACTritES.] 



UNI 'J' ED STATES 



MiSllAlTlRKS. 

The most importiint fai-ts oiuiiireteil with tho inanufmturinK in- 
tOFL'Sts of the rnili'd ."^tatrs. as rovealod by tho census of Kso and 
those of the procedint; decades, may be stated, iu the most eon- 
don-ed form, lu-i follows: — 

Fimi, a table is (jiveu showiuK certaiu of the principal items 
coiiriccted with niaiiDfnctures in the form uf totals for the whole 
United States, for tho three census years I860, 1870, and 1880:— 

TABfLAR StaTKMKST DF M ANIPACTUHK3 IN THK UxITEU STATES. 



1860. 



Number of Establish-I 

n.ents 140.4.33 

Capital Invested I81.009,8o5,715 

Avera»:e Number of 

llau'ls Eniployed 

Males above 16 years. . 

Feiiiiiles above 15 yrs. 

Children and Youths 
Total am't. paid in 

wiu'esdurintf the year. 8378.878, 
Viilue of .Materials used. 1.031,605, 
Value of Products 1.8.-*5.861 



,966 



1870. 



1880. 



2i2.148 
12.118,208,769 



1,615..S9S 
S2:J.770 
114.628 

8775..'>84..343 
2,488,427,242 
4.2:i2,325,442 



253.852 
2,790,272.606 



2,019,n,» 
531.(;.» 
181.921 

$047.9,53.795 
3.39li.S23..'49 
5.369,579.191 



The proportion in which the various branches of raanufacture 
are geographically distributed over the country, aecordinc to tho 
census of 1880, isshowii by the following percentaee statement: — 

Table of (iKOOBArniCAi. Distuibition op MAXUFACTtiRES in 
THE United States. 





Propor- 
tion of 
total 
Area. 


NiMiiber 
ot E-tab- 

lish- 
mentt. 


.Amount 
of Capi- 
tal 
invested 


Hands 
Em- 
ployed. 


Wases 
Paid. 


Oross 
Product 


X. Atlan-.ic 


5.6 


44.87 


61.94 


62.23 


04.33 


59.64 


S. .Atlantic 


9.4 


10.16 


5.89 


7.59 


4.99 


5.26 


N. Central 


25.5 


34.33 


25.78 


24.39 


24.86 


28.94 


S. Central 


20,3 


7.55 


3.75 


3.85 


3 11 


3,47 


\V. (Cordil- 
leran). 


39.4 


3.09 


2.64 


1.94 


2.71 


2,69 



Nt'xt may follow a statement of the various most extensive 
mauufarturinB industries nrrunRcd in the order of their iinpor- 
tancf. with relereiici" to tho value of their products. In this table 
all branches of manufacture are included in which the total pro- 
ducliou fxceeds ^U.OoO.OOO in value:— 

Table of Individual Masufactcrinq iNDtrsTRiES in the United 
Statks, according to the Census of 1880. 



Products. 



Flouring and (tri-Jt Mill Products — 

SlauKhtering and Meat Packiut' 

Iron and Steel 

Woolen ">f all classes 

Lumber, Sawed 

Foundry and Machine Shop Prod- 
ucts 

Cotton rtoods 

I'lothing. Men's 

lioots imd Shoes 

Bugar and Mola-ises. Refined 

Leather. Tanned 

Liquors. Malt 

Carpentering 

Priitting and Publit^hing 

Furniture 

Leather. Curried 

Afrriciiltural Implements 

Mixed Textiles 

Itreud and othor Hnkory Produots — 

Carriages and Wagons 

Tobacco, Cigars, etc 

Paper 

Tubacco. Chewing, Smoking and 

Snuff 

Tin wBro. Copper ware, and Sheet-iron 

wn re 

Blncksmithinir 

Linuors. Distilled 

Bilk and Silk Goodd 



Number of 


Number of 


Establish- 


Hands em- 


ments. 


ployed. 


a.338 


58.407 


872 


27,297 


1,005 


140,978 


2,689 


161.5'i7 


25,708 


147,956 


4,958 


145,357 


],(KI5 


185.472 


6.166 


160,813 


17,972 


133.819 


49 


5,857 


3.105 


23,812 


2,191 


26,220 


9,184 


.54,138 


3,467 


58,478 


5.227 


69,304 


2„119 


11,013 


1.943 


39,.580 


470 


4.3,373 


6.396 


22,488 


3.841 


45.394 


7,145 


53.297 


692 


24,422 


477 


32,756 


7, .195 


26.248 


28,101 


34.526 


844 


8,502 


382 


31,337 



Products. 


Amount 
paid in 
Wages. 


Value 

of 

Materials. 


Value 

of 

Produots. 


FlouriuK and Grist Mill 


$17,422,316 

10..108.5:!0 
.S5.47i;.7K5 
47.;i89.(i87 
31,845,074 

65,9,82.1,33 
45,1.14,419 
45,940,353 
50,995.144 

2.H75,032 
9,204,243 
l2.10K,(i,W 
24,582,077 

30,.S.31.657 
23,605.080 

4,845.413 
15.319.610 
13,316,753 

9.411. .328 
1H.988 615 
18.464..162 

8,525.355 

6.419,024 

10.722.974 
11.126.001 
2,6l.3.9li7 
9.146,705 


8441,545.225 

267,7.38.9r2 
191.271,1.10 
164.37 1..V>1 
146.1.15.385 

103.345.083 
1 13.765,537 
131.363.282 
114,966,575 

144,698,499 
8.1.049.207 
.16.8.J6,.10O 
51.621,120 

32,460.395 
35,860,206 

59.306,509 
31,.131.170 
37,227,741 

42.612.027 
.30..197.( 86 
29.577.8:53 
39,951.297 

34.397,072 

25,232.281 
14,572.363 
27.744,245 
22,467.701 


850,1,185.712 
303 .162 413 


SlauKhtorinK and Meat 


Iron and Steel 

Woolen of alt classes. . 

Lumber, Sawed 

Foundry and >lHchiiie 

Sliop Products 

Cotton tiood.,; 

t?lotliinK, Men's 

Boots and Shoes 

Sugar and Molasses. 


;:liii..ViT.685 
267.2.12.913 
233.268.729 

214..578.468 
210.950.383 
209 ,.148,460 
1%,920,481 

151,484,915 


Leather, Tanned 

Liquors, Malt 


ll.!,.i48.336 
I01,0.i8,:i85 
94,152,139 


Printing and Publish- 


90.789.341 




77.845,725 


Leather. Curried 

Agricultural Im pie- 


71,351.297 
68.640,486 


Mixed Textiles 

Bread and other Baic- 

ery Protiucts 

Carriages and Wagons. 
Tobacco, Cigars, etc.. 


66,221,703 

65,824.896 
64.951.617 
63.979..175 
55.1U9.9U 


Tooaeco. Chewing, 
Smoking and Snuff 

Tin wRio. Copper ware 
)iridSheet-in)n ware 


52,793,056 

48.0',16,038 
43.774.271 


Liquors, Distilled 

Silk and Silk Ooods, . .. 


41,063 6133 
41,033,045 



The remarkable concentration of the manufacturing interests of 
the United States in the extreme northeastern portion of the 
country will be evident from the above table. New Kngland. New 
York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, embracing only a little over 
one-twentieth of the area of the whole country, proiluce 8ix-teTith.s 
of the total gross product of its mnnnfnetures. Similar condi- 
tions are shown in contrasting the northern with the southern 
sections of the country. The North Atlantic and North Central 
divisions, with thirty-one per cent of the total area, furni.^^h over 
eighty-eight percent, of the gross product. The Western or Cor- 
dilleran region, with nearly forty per cent, of the total area of the 
country, furnishes only a little over two and a half percent, of its 
nnumfuctures. 

The Census Report of 1882 gives a great mft.«s of statistics in 
reference to the manufacture of eolton in the country, from which 
tho following are selected a,s representing the most essential feat- 
ures of this extremely important business: — 

Number of spindles 10.6.13.4.35 

Number of looms 225.7.19 

Bales of cottou consumed 1,-170,344 

Number of persons employed 172..144 

Wages paid 842,040,110 

These are said to be the final figures of the specific manufacture 
of cotton yarn aiul woolen fabrics, including some cotton hosieryj 
and by the term " specific " is meant cotton " worked into a fabric 
known and sold under that name." 

Including the cotton used in mixed goods and unholstery. the 
total consumption is estimated at 1.760,000 bales. The total num- 
ber of oiieratives eniployeil. including those engaged in print and 
dye works and bleaeheries, and also in manufacturing special 
fabrics in which cotton forms a part, is 19S.3,'i8. The operatives 
employed in tho specific cotton mills are thus cla.s8ed as to age and 
sex: — 

Men M.685 

Boys 15. 107 

Women 84,.1:i9 

Girls 13.213 

Total 172.514 

Tho average wages earned in the cotton mills amount, for 300 
days in the year, to 81 cents per day. Since 1840 the hours of labor 
have been reduced from 13 or 14 to 10 or 11. and the average earn- 
ings per hour are now more than double what they were at that 

The manufacture of eolton is carried in nearly all the Atlantio, 
Central, and Southern States, but is principally developed in and 
near Massachusetts. This State alone consumed considerably 
more cotton in 1880 than all tho olhiT States outside of New 
England. Of 1..170.344 hnles consumed in " specific" cotton manu- 
facture in the country, in 1K8I), 1.1-.9.498 were taken by New Eng- 
land. Massachusetts and Rhode Island, having togetj-.er about 
ten thousan<l square miles of area, cimsumcd 742. :«7 bales, or 
nearly half the wlode consumption of the I'nited States, 

Some cotton cloth is still made by hand in tho uiountamoua 
sections of the South, some two or three hundred thousand perions 



UNITED STATES 



[foreign commerce. 



being supplied in this way. As a measure of their work, it is snid 
by Mr. Atkinson, Special Agent of the Census in charge of the 
subject of Cotton, that "two carders, two spinners, aud one 
weaver could produce eight yards of coarse cotton cloth in a day 
of ten hours.'* To this he adds: "Of the whole force engagt-d in 
the specific cotton manufactures, about ItjO.OOO are empl<ty<'d nn 
goods for homt' consumption. It would take 16,00.000 to make the 
saini' number of yards by hand-work, and the cloth would hv of a 
far different kind— more durable, it is true, but coarse and un- 
sightly." 

The following table will furnish the nec^^ssary data for an un- 
derstandin^r of the importance of the petroleum business in the 
United States: — 





Profluction 
in Barrela 

of 42 
Gallons. 


Exports, in gallons. 




Tear 

end- 
ing 
June 

so. 


Illuminat- 
ing Oil. 


Crude Oil, 


Total. 


Total Val- 
ue of Ex- 
ports. 


1864 


2,478,709 


12,791,518 


9,980,654 


23,210,369 


810,782,689 


1865 


2,424,905 


12,722,005 


12,293,897 


25,496,849 


16,563,413 


1866 


3,165,700 


34,255.921 


16,0,57,943 


50,987,341 


21,830,887 


1867 


3,591,900 


62,686,657 


7,344,248 


70,255,481 


24,407,642 


1868 


3,613,709 


67,909,961 


10,029,6,59 


79,456,888 


21,810,676 


1869 


4,046,558 


84,403,492 


13,425,566 


100,636,684 


31,127,433 


1870 


4,411,016 


97,902,505 


10,403,314 


113,735,294 


32,668,960 


1871 


5,558,775 


132,608.955 


9,,859,038 


149,892,091 


36,894,810 


1872 


5,842,497 


122,539,575 


13,559,768 


145,171,583 


34,058,390 


1873 


7,242,343 


158,102,414 


18,439,407 


187,815.187 


42,050,756 


1874 


11,188,741 


217,220,504 


17,776,419 


247,806,483 


41,245,815 


1875 


10,083,828 


191,551,933 


14,718,114 


221,955,308 


30,078,563 


1876 


8,823,142 


204,814,673 


20,520,397 


243,660,152 


32,915,786 


1877 


10,822,871 


262,441,844 


26,819,202 


309,198,914 


61,789.438 


1878 


14.738,262 


289,214,541 


26,936,727 


338,841,303 


46,574,974 


187<i 


16,917,606 


331,586,442 


25,874,488 


378,310,010 


40,305,249 


18S0 


22,382,509 


367,325,823 


23,297,997 


423,964,699 


30,218,625 


1881 


25,805,363 


332,283,045 


39,984.844 


397,660,262 


40,315,609 


1882 


28,650,181 


488,213,033 


41,304,997 


559.954.590 


51,232,706 


1883 


26,662,808 


419,821,081 


52,712,316 


5^5,931,622 


44,913,079 


188i 


23,744,924 


415,615,693 


67,186,329 


513,660,092 


47,103,248 


1885 


21,750,619 


453,243.192 


81,037,902 


574,628,180 


50,257,947 


1886 


22,463,744 


469.471,451 


80,246.703 


577,781,752 


50,199.844 


1887 


25,316,000 


480,345,811 


76,062,875 


592,303,267 


46,824,933 


1883 


23,249,597 


456,417,221 


85,538,725 


578,351,638 


47,042,409 



The relation of materials to product, in the statistics of industry, 
needs to be carefully borne in miud ; and for the purpose of throw- 
intr Iij,'ht on this .subject, the Census Kfport of 1S8'1. in the volume 
devoted to manufactures (published in 1883) groui»s the manu- 
facturing and mechanical industri-s into four chis-es. as follows: 
I. Those industries in which the subject-matter is of a distinct 
and immediate commercial value, but the proj.erty does not reside 
in the person who treats it; II. Those industries in which the 
entire valuo of the subject-matter is carried into the value of 
''materials." and appears again in the product, enhanced by the 
Value of labor, use of capital, rent, freight, etc.. but in which the 
value is BmalL compared to the cost of labor; III. Industries 
which are otherwise under the same conditions as those of the 
Becond class, but in which the value of the materials approaches, 
or even miKtrately exceeds, the value of the labor employed, and 
becomes thus an important element in the final value of the prod- 
uct, enhancing the apparent production of the industry in a high 
degree; and IV. Industries in which the value of the materials far 
exceeds all other elements in the cost of production combineil. 
although, in fact, compuratively little value has been added by 
these operations, and only a small number of artisans or laborers 
Bupporied. The following table is intended to illustrate the rela- 
tion of materials to product, indicated above:— 







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* All the industries tabulated were assigned entire to one claia 
or another, according to the principles indicated in the text. The 
lines of division taken tor the second, third, and fourth classes 
were: (1) where the value of the materials is le.'^s than two-fifthsof 
that of the ultimate product ; (2) where the value of the materials 
is from two-fifths to four-fifths of that of the ultimate product; 
and (3) where the value of the materials is over four-fifths of that 
of the ultimate product. 

t In this table the same groups of industries in 1870 are com- 
pared with each other. The table differs from that contained in 
the volume on Manufactures of the Ninth Census and in the 
Compendium of that census in this, that the mining and fishing 
interests, and the statistics of a few industries which form the 
subject of special reports in the census of 1880 are, for purposes 
of comparison, excluded herefrom. 



STATISTICS.] 



UNITED STATES 



Valubs in Dollars op thb Products of Doukstio Aobicultdek 

EXPOKTKl) b'KOM THK U.NITKD 8tATKS FOB THB VEAKS 

188li, 1S87 AND 1S8S. 



AniiDiils 

Aiiiiiuil Oils 

Provisions, iiicluilin^ Muati 

mill Djiiry ProiluoU / 

Brciuistuffs 

Fruits 

Seetts 

Ti'xtih'S. Uiimaniifnoturod.. 
VoKotiibh' Oils and f.Jil cake. 

Tofmoco U-iif 

All Other Agricultural Pro- 1 

duets / 

Total Value of Agriculta-1 
ral Products J 



Total Value of nil E-xportsl 
of Domestic Mcrchaodisc. J 



Pcrci'Dtage Value of Agri-1 
cultural Products J 



1886. 



2.M8, 
718, 

,62.";, 

,S-I6, 

,:iik8, 

,949, 
,.Mil 
,2.=i5. 
1.58, 

Oil 



.660 
,6.M 

,216 

,.'>5S 
,3ii,H 
,991) 
.916 
,170 
4S7 

,666 



484,954,595 



665,964,&'i2 



73 82 



1887 



10/i9.S,362 
819,670 

92.783,296 

165,7H8.662 
2.6t)9.1«15 
I,9ii7,4ci9 

206.300,11.59 
9,011.4.il 
25,948,277 

7,275,647 



523,073,798 



703,022,923 



74.40 



1888. 



12.S85,000 
924,136 

93,05S.7«5 

127,191.687 
3,510.2(18 
l,5I(i,()9() 

223,022,1 3:J 
8,45S.608 
21,93(),()84 

8,356,746 



.500,840,086 



683,?62,104 



73.23 



From a ooiunariflon of the facts given in the various tables here- 
with presented, it will bo evident thut, with the exception of those 
items callt-d " luaiiutactiires " in the Ceii.'.us Reports wliieh are not 
properly manufMctur* t^. hut the conversion of artieles ot food into 
a more suitalde iind convenient lorin for shipment to foreign 
countries— as. fur instiinee. ^hiuKhteriiiR of iininifils. and KrindiiiK 
(ind packing of wheat in barrels — the inanufactiircs of tiie United 
States are intended and used for hoineeonsumpiion. The amount 
of these exported is very small as eomi>ared with tlie total of the 
exports. Ihere is no one inanutdciured jiriicle of which the 
l"nitod States has anything like a monopoly abroad, or which 
greatly predominates in importance as an article of export over 
any otlior article. 

The following data, compiled from the reports of the Bureau of 
Statistics, will give a sufliciently complete and comprehensive view 
of the nature of the imports into the I'nited States. 

The imported articles, including those admitted free of duty and 
the dutiable, are tUuscla-ssified:— 

\. Artichi* nf food and live animah B. ArtxrUn in (i crude 
condition which entrr into the varioiin prncenficti of dommtic indus- 
try. C. Articlcfi whollii or partially inanufacturid for wwe. a» 
matcrialn in the rnanu.locttire» and mechanic arts. D. Articles 
manufactured ready /or consum/ition. E. Articles of voluntary 
use. luxuries, etc. The following table gives theatnonntin value 
of each of tllese classes iniported during the years 1884 and 18^5, 
and tile average for the fivi^ years (18S1-H.)): also the ad vaktreni 
rate of duty on the dutiable articles of each class, and the per- 
ocutaBO relation of the ad valorem duty to the entire duty col- 
locted: — 





1884 and 18S5. 


Average of Years 1881-85. 


Year. 


Free of Duty. 


Dutiable. 


.\d ^'alorem 
Rate on 
Duituble. 


Per Cent. 

of Total. 

Duty. 


Free of Duty. 


Dutiable. 


Ad Valorem 
Rate on 
Dutiable, 


Per Cent. 

of Total. 

Duty. 


ISM A. 
188.5 


892,589.286 
86,559,991 


$132,136,969 
107,706,.369 


44.75 
57.28 


31.15 
34.79 


$86,851,618 
86,066,234 


$I30.072.2;i8 
129,907,732 


44 90 
46.41 


29 47 
30.57 


1884 B. 
1885 


94,039..567 
82,507,747 


44.4.57.174 
37,101, .595 


26.82 
25.48 


6.28 
5.33 


97.895.975 
95,001,401 


,54,3.58,668 
49,163,935 


29.96 
28.57 


8.21 
7.12 


1884 C. 
1885 


12.1K6.427 
11.185.JS7 


69.774.216 
61,O45,0.5;i 


26.48 
27.88 


9.73 
9.61 


11,719,621 
11,85(1,883 


66,492,197 
66,169,(J52 


29,42 
29.01 


9.87 
9.73 


1884 D. 

1885 


11,0.3.5.112 
IU.617.405 


123,20.5,489 
108.636,576 


47.54 
48.28 


30.86 
29.58 


10,207.857 
10,504.966 


1*5.602,292 
133,155,050 


47 22 
47.52 


37.. 31 

32.08 


1884 E. 
1885 


1.429,873 
2,041,604 


80,721,276 
72,178,227 


48.12 
50. S4 


21. 9S 
2(1. (i9 


1.199.322 
1.46.i,551 


78,128,835 
79,690,207 


51.(19 
50.(9 


20.14 
20.49 


Total 18*4 


$211,280,265 


$456,195,194 


av. 41.61 


100.00 


$207,904,425 


$464,634,230 


av. 42.06 


100.00 


•' 1885 


192.912,234 


386,667,820 


45.90 


100.00 


204,877,035 


458,086,576 


43.05 


100.00 



Abolition. 76.5. 

Ada(ns. Pres. Jno., 7.54. 

Adams, Pres.Jno.Quinoy. 
7B1. 

Admission of Nebraska, 
785. 

African Slave trade, 771. 

Alabama. T29. 825. 

" Alabama " Claims. 785. 

Alaska. 7S5. 815, 823. 

Alperine War, 759. 

Allen and Sedition Laws, 
7,54. 

Allen. Ethan, 739. 

American Authors. 769. 

American imp(»rt8 0f Iron 
and Steel. 814. 

American Seamen, im- 
pressment of, 7.53. 

Andre, Major. 743. 

Annals. 825. 

Annexation of Texas,765. 

Antieriim, Battle of, 778. 

Anti-Xchraska .Men, 770. 

Appalachian Chain. 795, 

Appnl:icliiaii region. 795. 

Area of (treat Lakes. 792. 

Area of United States, 797 

Arkansas. 7(h5. 

Army disbanded, the. 744. 

Army of the Potomac,778. 



Arthur's .Administration. 
787. 

Assassination of (jarfield, 
787. 

Atlanta Campaign. 782. 

Atlantic Regi<,n, H(i,i. 

Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, 
803. 

Augusta. Georgia. 800. 

Australian Ballot Sys- 
tem, "iio. 

Ball's liluff.Battle of.776. 

Beginning of the Govern- 
ment. 752. 

Beginning of the Strug- 
gle. 73S. 

Belmont. Battle of, 776. 

Bennington, Battle of.742. 

Bessemer Steel, 81 

Bit-low Papers, 7(57. 

Bill of Rights. 7.38. 

Bill, the Embargo. 756. 

Bismarck. Dak.. Hio. 

Bituminous CoaUfields of 
Penn.. 810. 

Black Hawk War. 763. 

Blockade running. 776, 

Bonneville and his Par- 
ty. 794. 

" Border RufTiane." 771. 

Border States, 775, 



Index. 

Boston, 737. 740. 741. 800. 
Boston Port Bill. 738. 
Braddock's Defeat. 7.33. 
Braudywine, Battle of, 

742. 
Brooks and Summer, 771. 
Brown. John, 772. 
Buchanan. Pres. James, 

771. 
Bull Run. Battles of, 776, 

V7S 
Bunker 11111,740. 
Burgoyne's Invasion, 742. 
Burr's Conspiracy. 7.5(t. 
Calhoun, John C, 7.57, 

763. 
California, 767. 814. 
California Fields. Kl2. 
Campaign '*f 1777. 742. 
Campaign of I77s, 742. 
Campaign of 1779. 742. 

7&). 
Campaigns in the West, 

77s. 
Canada, attack on, 740. 
Canby, murder of, 786. 
Capital removed. 7.55. 
Carboniferous Age, 794. 
Carolina. 729. 
Causes of the .American 

Revolution, 734, 739. 



Cedar Creek, 782. 
Onsus. 7.51. 789. 
(_'hancellorsville. 780. 
Charleston. S.__C., 800. 
Chattanooga. 781. 
Chicago. Ill..8(i0. 
Chickamauga. 781. 
Chinese liumigrationBUl, 

Civil'Rig'hts Bill, 784. 
Civil Service Act. 789. 
Claims. Court of, 750. 
Clay. Henry. 7.57. 767. 
Clev<dand, Pres. Grover, 

788. 
Cliffs. 794. 
Climate, 792, 798. 
Coal. 789. 809. 
Coal-beds. 8o9. 
Coast. 791. 

('oast of California, 805. 
Coast, operations, on the, 

776. 
Coast ranges. 795. 
Colonial Oppression, 735. 
Colorado. 815. 
Colorings, 794. 
Commerce, Foreign, 828. 

829. 
Commissioners to France, 

742. 



Compromise, Effects of, 
767. 

Comstock Lode, the, 814. 

Confederacy Organized, 
773. 

Confederate Cruisers, 781 

Confederate Line of De- 
fense. 775. 

Confederate Finances. 784 

Congress. Contincntal,736, 
73S, 739. 

Connecticut. 7'J9. 730. 746. 

Connecticut Compromise, 
746. 

Conquest of Cana<ln, 734. 

Constitution. 745-751. 

Constitutional Union 
Party. 772. 

Conventions of 1852,769. 

Convict Law, 788. 

Copper. 817. 

Corinth. 779. 

Comwallis. Lord. 743. 

Costof the Civil War.784. 

Cotton, 8'25,8'2(i. 

Cotton Gin. the, 760. 

Cowpens. Battle of, 743. 

Crock War. 7.58. 

Cuba. 769. 

Cumborland,Army of the. 



UNITED STATES 



/^ 



Cu-ter Massacre, 786. 

Uakoin. 81o. 

Davis. J>fEerson, 773, 783. 

Dei'laration of Independ- 
ence. 741. 

De Kalb. Baron, 743. 

Delaware, 730. 

Democratic Party, Split 
in the, 772. 

Denver, Colo.. 800. 

Detroit, Surrender of. 757 

Different Coal-fields. 810. 

Difficulties with France, 
754. 

Discovery and Settlement 
of America. 729. 

Dispute about Charters, 
735. 

Douglass, Stephen A., 
77U, 772. 

Downfall of the Federal 
Party, 759. 

Draft Riots. 781. 

lircd Scott Decision, 772. 

Dutch Settlements, 7.30. 

Early Discoveries, 729. 

Eastern Kentucky Coal- 
field. 811. 

Efforts to found colonies, 
721. 

Electoral College, 748. 

Electoral Commission, 749 

Election of 186i), 772. 

Election of 1864, 782, 

Election of 1876, 787. 

Election of 188(1. 787. 

Election of 1884, 788. 

Eleventh Amcndment,754 

Emancipation, 779. 

Emancipation Proclamar 
tion, 779. 

Embargo Act. 756. 

End of the Dutch Power, 
730. 

English Policy towards 
the Colonists. 731. 

Era of Good Feeling. 759. 

Erie Canal, 760, 

Eutaw Springs. Battle of 
743. 

Evacuation of New York, 
741. 

Executive Departments, 
718. 

Expedition of Doniphan, 
766. 

Fair Oaks, Battle of, 778. 

Fall of the Confederacy, 
783. 

Federalists and Anti- 
Federalists, 7.52. 

Federal Jurisdiction, 749. 

Filibustering. 769. 

Fillmore, Pres. Millard, 
767, 768. 

First Ten Amendments, 
the. 751. 

Fishery Question, 785. 

Five Forks. Battle of,783. 

Florida. 729, 759. 

Foreign Officers. 742. 

Foreign Relations, 777. 

Forests of Interior, 806. 

Forests of North Amer- 
ica. 803. 

Formation of the Con- 
stitution, 744. 

Fort Donelson, 777. 

Fort DuQuesne. 733 

Fort Erie, Battle of, 758. 

Fort Henry, 777. 

Fort Sumter, 774. 

Fourteenth Amendment, 
784. 

Fourth Administration, 
755. 

France. 732. 733, 734, 742. 

Franklin, Benjamin, 736. 
741. 

Fredericksburg. 825. 

Fremont. Jno. C, 766,771 

French and Indian War, 
734. 

French Spoliation Claim, 
788. 

Fugitive criminals. 7.50. 

Fugitive slaves. 750, 776. 

Fulton, Robert. 756. 

Gadsden Purchase, 767. 

(Jage. General. 738. 

Garfield, Pres. Jas. A., 
787. 



Gathering of Troops. 
General Topography, 792. 
General Winter Storms, 

802. 
Geography and Statistics, 

819. 
Geological History, 794. 
Georgia, 729, 730,742, 743, 

825. 
Germantown, Battle of, 

742. 
Gettysburg, Battle of,780. 
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 

729. 
Gold and Silver. 814. ^ 
Gorges and Ravines, 794. 
Government Expeditions, 

7ii8. 
Government Expenses, 

780. 
Grant, Ulysses S., 776, 

781, 782, 785. 
Greene, General. 743. 
Greiiville. Lord, 7.:i6.^ 
Growth of Colonies, 731. 
Guilt.inl, Battle of. 743. 
Hamilton and Burr. 756. 
Harrison, Pres. Benj., 788. 
Harrison, Pres. Wm. H., 

7ii4. 
Hartford Convention, 759. 
Hay and tirass, 824, 
Hayes Administration, 

787. 
Henry, Patrick, 736. 
Hood ill Tennessee. 782. 
House of Representa- 
tives. 746. 
Howe, General, 742. 
Hudson Bay Company, 

764. 
Hurricanes, 802. 
Idaho, 815. 

Immigration and Popu- 
lation, 819. 
Inipeaehment of Pres. 

Johnson, 785. 
Imports, 829. 
Indiana, 811. 
Indian Tnmbles, 763, 
Indian War, 752. 
Insurrection, the Whis- 
key, 752. 
Invasion of Pennsylva^ 

nia, 780. 
Inventions, 768. 
luka, Banie of, 779. 
JaeksoBi Battle of, 780. 
Jackson, Pres. Andrew, 

758, 762. 
Jamestown Colony, 729. 
Jefferson, Pres. Thomas, 

741. 7.54, 7.'i5, 756. 
Johnson and Congress, 

784. 
Johnson, Pres. Andrew, 

784. 
Judiciary, 749. 
Kansas Admitted, 774. 
Kansas - Nebraska Bill, 

770. 
Kearsarge and Alabama, 

the. 781. 
Key, Francis S., 758. 
King George's War, 733, 

731. 
King William's War, 732, 

733. 
La Fayette, 742. 761. 
Lake Champlain, Battle 

of, 7.5H. 
Lake Erie, Battle of, 7,58. 
Lecompton Constitution, 

771. 
Lexington and Concord, 

7.39. 
Lexington. Siege of, 776. 
Liberty, the Spirit of, 

731. 
Lincoln, Pres. A., 772, 

774, 783. 
Literature, 768. 
Livingston, Robert R., 

741. 
Long Island, Battle of, 

741. 
London Company, 729. 
Lookout Mountain, 781. 
Los Angeles. Cal., 800. 
Louisiana, 752. 786. 
Louisiana Purchase, 755, 

7.56. 



Madison's Administra- 
tion, 7.57. 

Manufactures, 789, 827. 

March to the Sea, Sher- 
man's, 782. 

Marquette, Father, 732. 

Marshall, Chief Justice, 
755 

Maryland, 728. 730. 

Maryland Coal-field, 811. 

Mason. Jno., 729. 

iNlassaehusetts, 729, 730. 

Me.Clellan. Geo. B., 776. 

Message, the President's, 
748. 

Mexican War, 766. 

Mexico, 766. 

Michigan, 765. 

Military Condition of the 
North. 775. 

Military Condition of the 
Stiuth. 775. 

Mineral Wealth. 789. 

Mining Business. 8(19, 816. 

Missionary Ridge. 781. 

Mississippi Basin, 792. 

Missouri Compromise,761 

Mobile, 782. 

Monitor and Merrimac, 

Monmouth, Battle of,742. 
Monroe. Pres. James, 759. 
Montana, 815. 
Mormons, the. 768. 
M..rii-. Kehert, 745. 
Mouiitiiin Regions, 792. 
Mount Hood, 808. 
j\lount Shasta, 
Movement of Population, 

819. 
Name of the Field, 809. 
Niishville, 782. 
National Bank, 753, 759, 

779. 
Native White Element, 

822 
Natural Gas. 812. 
Naval Exploits, 757. 
Negro iSoldiers, 780. 
Nevada. 7.'^5, 814. 
New Amsterdam. 730. 
New England. 731. 
NewEngland .jlountains, 

807. 
New Jersey, 730, 741. 
New Hampshire, 729.730. 
New Mexico, 766, 815. 
New Orleans, La., 732, 

758, 778, 800. 
Newspapers, 768. 
New States, 789. 
New York, 730, 741, 744, 

800. 
Non-metalliferous Min- 
erals. 816. 
North Carolina, 729, 730, 

825. 
Northeast Winds, 802. 
Northern Pine Belt, 803. 
Nullification. 763. 
Number of Men in the 

Armies of the North 

and the South. 783, 784. 
Office. Rotation in. 762. 
Ohio Coal-fields. 811. 
Ohio Company. 7';3. 
Oklahoma Country. 788. 
Old Continental Congress 

738. 
Opposition to the Stamp 

Act, 636. 
Orders in Council, 756. 
Oregon. 764. 815. 
Original and Appellate 

Jurisdiction, 750. 
Origin of PoliticalParties, 

752. 
Ostend Manifesto, 769, 
Otis, James, 7.36. 
Pacific Forests, 804. 
Pacific Region. 804. 
Panic of 1837, 764^_ 
Paper Currency. 779. 
Party Principles. 7,54, 
Peace Congress. 774. 
Pennsylvania, 7.30, 780. 
Pennsylvania Anthracite, 

810. 
Personal Liberty Laws, 

768. 
Petersburg. 781,782. 
Physical Character, 797. 



Physical Geography and 

Statistics. 791. 
Pierce's Administration, 

7o9. 
Pitt, Wm., 738. 
Pittsburg Landing.Battlo 

of, 777. 
Plains. 792. 

Plans of the South, 773. 
Platforms and Terraces, 

793. 
Plattsburg, Battle of, 758. 
Plymouth Colony, 729. 
Plymouth Company, 729. 
Politicitl Divisions, 797. 
Polk, Jas. K.,7116. 
Ponce de Leon, 729. 
Pontiae's AVar. 7.34. 
Population. 731, 819, 820. 
Ports and Harbors, 791. 
Powers and t>uties of the 

President. 748. 
Presidents <if the LTnited 

States, 790. 
Princeton, Battle of, 742. 
Privileges of Citizens. 750 
Production of Rails, 813. 
Project of Separation, 741 
Protective Tariffs, 761. 
Provinces, 793. 
Provisions of the Stamp 

Act, 736. 
Public Lands, 822. 
Puritans, the, 729. 
Putnam, Israel, 740, 741. 
Qualifications for the 

Presidency. 748. 
Quebec Act, 738. 
Queenstown Heights. 757. 
Quicksilver, 816. 
Races and Language, 791. 
Railroads, 760, 789. 
Rainfall. 801. 
Randolph, Edmund, 752. 
Randolph, Peyton. 739. 
Refunding the Debt^787. 
Relations of States. 7.50. 
Religious Condition, 731. 
Repeal of Stamp Taxes, 

788. 
Republican Government, 

751. 
Republican Party of 1792. 

753. 
Republican Party of 1856, 

770. 
Restrictive Policy of Eng- 
land, 735. 
Resumption Act, 786. 
Rhode Island, 729, 730. 
Rice, 826. 

Richmond, 782, 783. 
Rights of English Sub- 
jects, 7.-il. 
Rivers. 795. 
Rocky Mountains. 793. 
Rotation in Office, 762. 
Rules for Immigrants, 822 
Rye, 821. 
.Salt, 818. 

Sale of Lauds, 745. 
Savannah, 742, 782.^ 
Scenographical. 8(i7. 
.Schuvler, Philip. 740. 
Scott', Winfield, 7.58. 
" Scrub Race for the 

Presidenc: ." 761. 
Secession, 773. 
Second Continental Con- 
gress. 739. 
Second Year of the Civil 

War, 777. 
Sedition Laws. 754. 
Senate, the. 746. 
Seven Days' Battles, 77S. 
Seven Pines, Battle of, 

778. 
Seward, Wm. H., 783. 
Sherman, W. T., 776, 781, 

782. 
Shays' Rebellion, 745. 
Siege of Y'orktown. 743. 
Sierra Nevada Forests, 

805. 
Silver, 814, 815. 
Slave Power, the, 769. 
Slave Trade prohibited, 

756. 
Slavery, 760,761. 
Sons of Liberty, 736, 737. 
South Carolina, 736, 737, 

825. 



Southern Pine Belt. 803. 

South, the, 7.'<9. 

Specie Circular, 764. 

Stamp Act, 736. 

State Governments, 751, 

Steamboats. 760. 

Stone River, Battle of,779 

Stony Point. 743. 

Sub-treasury System,764. 

Sugar, 826. 

Summer Isothermals, 799 

Supreme Court, 749. 

Su|)reme Law of the 
Land. 751. 

Surrender of Lee, 783, 

Surroundings of Great 
Basin, 795. 

Swedes in America, 730. 

Tariffs, 752, 763. 

Taylor, Pres. Zaehary, 
767. 

Tea Destroyed at Boston, 
7.37. 

Tccumseh, 757. 

Telegraph, 768, 789. 

Telephone, 789. 

Tennessee Coalfields, 811 

Terms of Clflice. 749. 

Tenure of Office Bill, 785. 

Texas, 765. 

The Afiproaching Con- 
flict. 769. 

The Atlantic Plains, 796. 

The Civil War, 774. 

The Cordillerau Region, 
793. 

The First Blood of the 
Civil War, 780. 

The tJovernment under 
the Constitution. 751. 

The Great Basin. 794. 

Thermal .Springs, 809. 

Third Year of the Civil 
War, 780. 

Timber, 792, 

Tin, 816. 

Tobacco, 826. 

Topography of the Great 
Basin. 795. 

Treason, 750. 

Treaty of Alliance with 
France, 742. 

Treaty of Washington, 
785 

Trenton, Battle ot.741,742 

Twelfth Amendment,749. 

Tyler, Pres. Jno., 764. 

Uncle Tom's Cabin, In- 
fluence of, 769. 

Union Flag, the, 740. __ 

United States Bank. 763, 

Utah and Arizona. 815. 

V.an Buren, Pres. Martin, 
764. 

Valley Forge, 742. 

Valley Foreste, 805. 

Vegetation, 794. 

Veto, the President's,747, 

Vicksburg Campaign, 780. 

Virginia, 729. 730. 

Virginia Campaign, 778. 

Virginia Coal-fields, 811. 

Volunteers, the First Call 
for, 774, 

War for Independence, 
the, 739, 744. 

War of 1812. 757. 

Washington City, Cap- 
ture of, 7.58. 

Washington, 812, 815. 

Washington. Pres. Geo. 
733. 740, 751, 753, 755, 

Waterfalls, 808. 

Webster, Daniel, 763. 

Whigs, 7ti2. 

Whisky Frauds. 786. 

Wilderness, Battles of 
the. 781. 

W'ilmington, 782. 

Wilson'sCreek, Battle of, 
776. 

Winds, 800. 

Wyoming, 812, 815. 

X. Y. Z. Dispatches, 754. 

Yield of Gold in Califor- 
nia, 814. 

Y'ield of Metallic Lead, 
816. 

Y'ork, the Duke of, 730. 

Y'orktown, 743. 

Yosemite Valley, 808. 

Zinc, 816. 



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